TABLE OF CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION
2. Definition of terms
2.2.1 Community
2.2.2. Economic
2.2.3. Development
2.2.3.1. Theories of Development: How development started
2.2.3.2. Competing Theories of Economic Development
3. Community Economic Development
3.1. Principles of Community Economic Development
4. Conclusion
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper will examine community Economic Development as model to achieving societal development. In order our effort to depict this, we shall define community, Economic and Development by entirely looking at what other researchers and scholars came up with.
In our attempt to understand Development, we shall explore the theories explaining how development started and then look at competing theories of Economic Development, the most modern approach.
We shall then embark on the view of different scholars and researchers who were actually involved in Community Economic Development (CED) program; their definitions and explanation of CED. Under this, we shall also look at the principles which they developed in their effort to explain CED.
Finally, we shall conclude the paper by give our opinion on how we understand CED.
2. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS.
2.1. Community
Community has been defined by different scholars; For instance Karen Jones (1995:7) defines a community as a dynamic interplay of historic process and complex relationships, acted out in environment .St. Clair (2003), sees a community as a place that is characterized by close personal interactions, where people feel a sense of belonging security and fulfillment. As for Phil Bartle (1992), a community is system which transcends individuals. A system, therefore has various dimensions, technological, economic, political, institutional, ideological and perceptual. He added by saying, that a community may be dynamic through birth, death and migration. Bryant, 1999; Mc Robie and Ross, 1987 sees a community as “Communities of interest; people with something in common other than their place of residence, such as gender, kinship, ethnic background or political belief.
Therefore, a community can be defined as of the people of the same origin, common interest, living in the same area with similar occupation and are joined by some or all these elements.
According to the World book encyclopedia, a community is a group of people who share similar belief and customs and who may live in the same area. Members of the community are linked by emotional bonds. They share a sense of belonging and feel an obligations toward other members of the group; people may form a community in the basis of ethnic or racial origin, religious or political beliefs, occupation, friendship or shared interest.
2.2 Economics.
Classical economist, Adam Smith (1776) defined Economics as the study of causes of wealth of Nation. The Neoclassical economist, Alfred Marshall (19th Century) defined “economics as a study of mankind in ordinary business of life. It examines that part of individuals and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and the use of the material requisite of well being”
The modern economist Lionel Robbins (1933) defined “economics as a science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternatives uses”
Economics can be, therefore, seen as a social science which study that part of human activity to which individuals co-operate with each other to satisfy their basic wants like food, clothing, and shelter.
2.3. DEVELOPMENT
2.3.1. How Development started
Development started with the transition from Feudalism to capitalism. Early bourgeoisie saw it as an improvement of an individual’s lot in the society.
Under Mercantilism the desire to accumulate gold and silver arose and later the government’s goal of increasing reports of manufactured goods was achieved.
Competitive capitalism witnessed the rise of industrial sector and increased demand for unskilled labour.
The classical Economist, Adam Smith approved the ‘Laissez faire” system and therefore discouraged the government intervention in the market.
Karl Marks (1867) saw development as a process of class struggle.
Imperialist spread capitalism in the rest of the world between 1860 and 1945 hence dominated politically and economically.
Alfred Marshall, a Neoclassical Economist believed that state would play important but limited role in achieving long term growth.
Vladimir Lenin believed that state should promote economic development generating wealth and distributing it.
John Keynes (1930s), encouraged government expenditure as a mechanism to create full employment, a mechanism still held by Breton Woods leaders.
From the above discussion, one can see development as a process involving quantitative and qualitative improvement in life of people in terms of material well being and social welfare which take place through various modes of production and different economic systems.
2.3.2. COMPETING, THEORIES OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Following the perceived inability of classical, neo - classical and Marxist economics to address the economic reality that plagued the poor countries of the world that came into existence following world War II, four school of economic thought were coined: (i) structuralism (ii) the linear stage growing model, (iii) the neo-Marxist or dependency theory, and (iv) the neoclassical revival of the 1980s.
2.3.3. The Structural school: State – led development was key
The structuralists focus on the mechanism by which “underdevelopment” economies transform their domestic economies from a traditional subsistence agricultural base into a modern economy. A modern economy is defined as one in which most of the population is urban and the bulk of the country’s output is in the form of manufactured products or services. This encourage import substitution and export promotion industries.
2.3.2.2. The Linear-stages-of-growth model: the Western European view of economic development.
This share the view that economic growth could only be achieved through industrialization .The key to development was the injection of massive capital coupled with public sector intervention designed to accelerate the pace of economic development.
Walt W. Rostow designated the stages of economic development as follows:
(i) The traditional society (ii) the pre-conditions to take-off (iii) the take- off (iv) the drive to maturity and (v) the age of high mass consumption.
2.3.2.3. The Neo-Marxist Approach: - Advanced capitalist countries Exploit Development countries:
They argued that developed countries paid very low prices for the primary products imported from developing countries, transformed them into finished products and sold them back to developing countries at very high prices. This resulted in chronic poverty and misery in developing countries.
They further argued that it was impossible for many developing countries to industrialize because they were struck in a state of under development and unequal exchange with advanced Capitalist nations.
2.3.2.4. The Neoclassical Revival: Private Markets, Not Government Intervention, Are Critical for Development.
To neoclassical economists, economic stagnation in developing countries was a by-product of poorly designed economic polices and excessive state interference in the economy. They argued that in order to stimulate the domestic economy and promote the creation of an efficient market, developing country governments had to eliminate market restriction and limit government intervention.
3 COMMUNITY ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (CED)
According of Sanyika (1989), CED is a people initiated strategy which seeks to develop the economy of community, region or country for the benefit of its resident. CED is a systematic planned intervention that is intended to promote economic self-reliance .Principal objective of CED is to help consumers in becoming producer, users in becoming providers, and employees in becoming owners of enterprises .CED does not assume that market alone will solve the economic problem of communities .CED utilizes entrepreneurial methods similar to those used by tradition business in the private, sector, methods such as market studies ,business plans and financial packaging. CED seeks to develop efficient productive and profitable ventures and enterprises, but it does so in the contact of community social cultural and political values .This, CED will often focus on issues such as local ownership, building the capacity of local people, and public needs, rather than focusing solely on business profits.
The Economic Council of Canada in 1990 defined CED in the following words. “In this contexts the “local community “is a geographic area whose residents participate interdependent economic, social and political institution and share a variety of public and private services. Local-community economic development means improvement of job opportunities, means improvement of job opportunities income levels and other features of the economy, not only on Main Street, but by main street”.
For the Canadian community Economic Development network 2003 the vision of CED is not limited to participating local economic development. It also envisions equitable and sustainable social and economic change:
“Community economic development is local action to create economic opportunity and enhance the social and environment conditions of communities .Its strength lies in this long-term vision and integrated approach – CED concurrently addresses multiple issue. Strategic priorities include but are not limited to structural economic change, local ownership of resources, social development, environmental stewardship, labour market development and access to capital .These strategies renew community economies by managing and strengthening community resource for local benefit.
British Columbia working group on CED 1991 sees CED as:
“Community based and community directed process that explicitly combines social and economic development and is directed toward festering the economic social ecological and cultural well being of communities and regions. CED, has emerged as an alternative to conventional approaches to economic development .It is founded on the belief that problems facing communities – unemployment poverty, job loss, environment degradation, and loss of community control –need to be addressed in a holistic participatory way “
The CED knowledge base out of Simon Fraser university states:
“CED is the process by which communities can initial and generate their own solutions to common economic problem, engaging in this process, builds long-term community capacity and fosters the integration of economic, social and environmental objectives “
3.1 PRINCIPLES OF CED
CED is based on the following principle:
1. CED is development of the community, by the community for the community
2. CED is a process. If a community is to do CED, the people have to get together, organize themselves and develop a plan through identifying their strength and assets
3. CED is along-term. CED is not an over night business.
4. CED is a holistic approach to development. CED included both social and economic development “money is not the only “bottom line. “ In CED there is more than one bottom line…..people, their community ,their culture and the environment are all important .
5. CED is inclusive. Having a CED plan that meets the needs of the whole community means consulting and involving all members of the community.
6. CED is the development of people. Key to the success of CED are committed leaders and participation by a broad range of community members
7. CED is founded upon sustainability. When community is deciding what they want to do, they have to ask questions about sustainability.
8. CED is innovative. CED requires participants to find new ways to use both our human natural and material resource to create new opportunities.
9. CED aims for diversification. Diversification means creating economic opportunities a variety of different smaller sections, rather than relying on one single including.
10. CED is collaborative. In order to accomplish than goals, communities often build partnerships with other communities, with educational organization, government, and regional development agencies.
4. CONCLUSION
Community economic Development (CED) is process by which people living in a community involve together to create a diversified and sustainable local economy .CED is therefore a model which emphasizes peoples participation in all activities which are geared towards solving their social and economic development. By so doing, they develop the sense of belonging, that is, the “we feeling “.They therefore see the activity as “ours” as opposed to “theirs.”
5. REFERENCES
St. Clair, Charles, 2003. Community and Economic Development: A manual for Practitioners. Outreach and Extension. University of Missouri. Lincoln University.
Bartle, Phil, (2003) Handbook for Mobilizes. Available on http://www.scn.org/cmp/
Blakely, E.J. 1989. Planning Local Economic Development: Theory and Practice, Sage Publications, New burry Park, California.
Britain Columbia working Group on CED 1991.
Sanyika 1989.
World Bank…..Working Group or CED in British Columbia, Canada in 1991.
Sunday, November 9, 2008
RESEARCH NO.1-MICROENTERPRISE
TABLE OF CONTENT
1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Literature review
2.1. Historical background
2.2. Definition of micro enterprise
3. Empirical Literature review
3.1. Micro enterprise in East Africa
3.2. Financing micro enterprises
3.3. Impact of micro enterprise
3.4. Problems facing Micro enter price
4. Policy Review on Micro enter price in Tanzania
4.1. Micro-credit activities
4.2. Fair Lending practices
4.3. National Economic Empowerment programme: one Billion for each Political region.
4.4. General strategy of the fund
4.5. Conditions for Borrowers
5. Conclusion
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper will attempt to explore Micro enter-price in East African Countries, that is, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. It will be divided into four major categories, that is, Theoretical review, empirical review, Tanzanian policy on micro enterprise and the conclusion. Our approach will basically revolve around historical literature review.
Under theoretical literature review, we shall attempt to give the historical background of EA and how the differences in political ideologies have created differences in economic attainment of the three countries. We shall also try to look at the definition of micro enterprise in this section.
Under empirical literature review review, this paper will examine the real micro enterprises in EA by drawing examples from the three countries. Other sub-topics that will be discussed here include the financing micro enterprises, the impact of micro enterprises on development, problems facing micro enterprise and the future prospects of micro enterprises.
We shall then embark on policy review on micro enterprise in Tanzania.
We shall then further give the conclusion by offering the opinions and recommendations where necessary.
2. THEORITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW.
2.1. Historical Background.
The three East African countries Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda have along history of having several aspects of life in common. The three countries were one time acolony for Britain after the Second World War. They later formed East African community which collapsed in 1977 and today they have formed another one. They also speak a common language-- Kiswahili.
The differences among the three countries was in their political ideologies. After the Arusha Declaration in 1967, Tanzania became a socialist country while Kenya and Uganda remained to be Capitalist. However, Tanzania is now exercising a mixed type of Economy after a binding with Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP)-- a programme initiated by International monetary fund (IMF).
Due to the differences in ideologies and social political and economies, the three East African countries have found themselves in quite different situations.
In Tanzanian, reports by Micro Links states that it is the poorest countries in the World and has a population of 38 million. The economy depends heavily on agriculture, which accounts for almost half of GDP, provides 85% of exports and employs 80% of the work force. Topography and climatic conditions, however limit cultivated crops to only 4% of the land area. Some 28 million Tanzanian live in rural area, which has approximately 5 million households.
Foundation for Sustainable Development (FSD) reporting on Kenyan micro-enterprise / micro finance Issues:- Two major factors play into Kenyan’s economic situations – wealth disparity and lack of economic growth. Country’s richest 10% of the Kenyan population controls almost half of the nation’s wealth while the poorest 10% hold less than 1%. The continuous extraction of resources from the poor to the rich perpetuates many economic influences, including lack of hope that hard work will pay off - a belief that is vital to the economy and motivation of developed nations.
In Uganda, World vision under Impact HIV /AIDS writing on Uganda Micro enterprise Development says that there are two million children – nearly 20% of the country’s total – have lost one or both parents to HIV/AIDS. This epidemic has created adverse set of challenges and needs for the orphans and children left behind. Without financial support, care or protection of a parent in their lives, many are forced to leave school to care for other family members infected with HIV/AID or to engage in child labour. They often experience emotional distress, hunger, poverty, homelessness and physical and sexual abuse. To make matters worse, they also run a heightened risk of contracting HIV/AIDS.
2.2. Definition of Micro enterprise.
According to Rashid M. Mfaume and Wilhelm Leonard, in their paper Small Business entrepreneurship in Dar – es – salaam, Tanzania. Exploring problems and prospects for future Development, referring to Lome convention, micro enterprises are normally formal sectors with as many as 10 workers although there are usual part-time assistants. They went a head to say that an entrepreneur is a person or a group of persons who compete through innovations, discover through networks; persuade resource owner and indeed bear risk.
3. IMPIRICAL LITERATURE REVIEW.
3.1. Micro enter prise in East Africa.
According to Choice humanitarian on Kenyan women New Micro enterprise, 17 women of Bahakwenu in the Taru location which is part of the Kwale District and the Samburu District have formed cooperative that is in the business of making and selling soap. They use the Aloe plant as one of the main ingredients of the soap. They were taught how to make soap by Rasilimal foundation. They have since used this simple technology to form a business.
UNCHS (Habitat) together with Manus Coffey associates carried out a project to find an appropriate technology to empty pit latrines, which led to the development of the vacu-tug. Vacu-tug has the responsibility of emptying 500 liters of waste in Kibera Nairobi, Kenya. In the process vacu-tug has solved the problem of the “Wrap and throw” method, known locally as the “flying toilet,” the way of disposing extreta.
In Uganda, a young window Joyce, a member of Trickle Up, launched her own business of making bricks. Since the construction of schools and homes is booming in Fort portal, Uganda, Joyce is able to bring about $700 per year with two staff members. She has so far been joined by other young windows and initiated a basket weaving business, which brings Joyce additional income.
Joe Gisbey writing on “Micro-enterprise project in Uganda empowers the poor” under local NGO, Links International operating under Global Connections, says how a lady has been successful, in carrying out small scale business. The author says, Nansikombi Berna - The charcoal/Tomatoes lady operating in Gerenge, a small fishing Village in Uganda has diversified her business buying Charcoal from the Islands and selling it to her fellow villagers.
In Kampala, Uganda, November 18, 2003 – Uganda’s vices President; Professor Gilbert launched “MTN Village Phone” an IFC-Supported joint venture between leading telecommunications company, MTN Uganda and Grameen foundation USA. Village phone operators take micro loans for the equipment as little as US$ 230 to be repaid over a period of up to 12 months. These village telephone operators earns as much as US700 per year-roughly twice the national average.
Rashid M. Mfaume, writing on “small entrepreneurship in Dar – es – Salaam” Says the ideological antipathy towards informal sector is buttressed by social conflict. One can witness the arrest of itinerant traders and other small business people setting up their merchandise along the pavements of busiest streets such as Azikwe, New post office, Telephone house, Samora Avenue and Kivukoni.
Mlowe, Towo and Bamanyisa in their research report entitled Crop diversification reports that in Bukoba, farmers are organized by a farmer’s network known as MAYAWA. The majority of the members are Vanilla farmers while 9.4 per cent are Mushroom farmers. A kilo of raw mushroom can fetch between Tshs: 2,500 and Tshs: 3000. The farmers sell the beans at a price that ranges between Tshs: 5000 for grade B and Tshs: 10,000 for grade A.
In Iringa district, a group of farmers at Ihemi and Kilolo Village grow Paprika under the Tanzania Spices (Foreign Company) terms and conditions. Paprika enables the farmers to fatch Tshs. 1070 per kilogram for grade A, Tshs: 560 per Kg. for grade B and Tshs: 250 per Kg. for Grade C. A farmer can produce between 500 to 700 Kgs. per harvest once a year.
In Hai, a cooperative society known as HABECO was formed to unite the beekeepers. The members of group have between 30 and 100 beehives per person. This enables the members to fetch between Tshs: 1,080,000 to 3,200,000 per year for raw honey.
3.2. FINANCING MICRO ENTERPRISES.
Theo Mushi (2004) writing for financial times, on “Financial watch: Is National Micro financing policy working?, observes that there is department in the Bank of Tanzania which is responsible for implementing the policy. The providers of funds for micro-enterprises are many from both domestic and external resources. These include UK NGO GATSBY TRUST (Tanzania), Hans Seidof Foundation, SIDO, East Africa Development Bank, African Development Bank, bilateral donors, UNDP and the government as well as the private sector under the umbrella of the private sector Initiative (PSI).
Other players in microfinancing are Community bank is Mwanga, Mufindi and Dar es Salaam and the Kilimanjaro Co-operation Bank.
In Uganda, International finance Corporation (IFC) has provided funding for the projects from its SME capacity Building Facility, its granted innovative small business pilots and partnership.
. Links International has pioneered a micro enterprise development project at Wellspring Uganda in which more than 1300 families have been taken out of poverty since the year 2000.
Anne Martin (nee kesterton), 1997, writing on “Sustainability of financial services provision for the poor; the case of Kenya, points out that credit programmes in several countries have proved to operate viably on commercial principles whilst lending to the poor. The analysis differentiates between specialist and no-specialists agencies and between a poverty-alleviation and a macro enterprise-lending approach arguing that the target client and methodology is subtly different in each case. PRIDE’s micro enterprise lending tending to deviate from KREP Juhudi poverty-alleviation methodology but both demonstrated organizational flexibility and financial discipline.
In Uganda, World visions MFIs help families care for the HIV/AIDS children by grating them loans to start business, purchase supplies and equipment, expand operations, market goods or services and hire additional staff. With as extra income, this caregivers can afford to provide the nutrition food, improved living conditions, health care, and education these children need.
3.3 IMPACT OF MICRO-ENTERPRISES ON DEVELOPMENT
Tanzania Development Gateway (2006) stated that micro and small enterprises are an important factor for economic development and industrialization in poor countries. The 2005 world Development Report suggests that creating sustainable jobs and opportunities for micro-entrepreneurs are the partway out of poverty for poor people.
UNITUS - Innovative solution to Global poverty, writing on poverty and microfinance had this to say, women constitute the bulk of those who need microfinance services -70% of the world poor are women. Therefore, targeting women has also proved to be a successful, efficient economic development tool..
Micro-enterprise for pit latrine in running vacu - tug achieved the following objectives:
- It provides a services that is affordable and environmentally sustainable
- It improves the sanitation situation of the area being serviced.
- Decrease the pollution and contamination of groundwater recourses
- It improves general aesthetics of the surrounding area.
- It reduce the impact of diseases such as cholera and typhoid and diarrhea
- It provide employment to the urban poor
- It serves the people
- It provides a services that is accessible and easily obtained, efficient and reliable
3.4 PROBLEMS FACING MICRO-ENTERPRISE
Rashid M. Mfaume, writing on SPIV’S (Suspected Person and Itinerant Vagrant), has it that thugs and city askaris are among crime committers and any entrepreneur can be victim of criminal Acts. The result indicated that 81.5% of the respondents had the opinion that any petty trader is a potential victim of criminal behavior-are not certain of safety and security.
The author of Tanzania Development Gateway (2006) writing a policy Dialogue Seminar Paper on opportunities and challenges for Rural SMEs Development, said that a multitude of problems make it difficult for SMEs to exploit potentials for further employment and wealth creation, the fundamental one being limited capacity in terms of attitude, motivation, skills and experiences.
Theo Mushi (2004) of financial times wrote that the constraints facing micro-enterprises and SMEs, are lack of collateral for bank loans and lack of business skills. The author of Financial Times added that there is lack of information about markets and technology.
3.5 FUTURE PROSPECTS OF MICRO ENTERPRISES
Make Laiser, the director of SIDO while closing the seminar for SMEs in, March 2006 said that 40 entrepreneurs out of 300 have managed to access the international market through the assistance of ACCES. This five years plan is aimed at assisting up to 300 entrepreneurs.
Tanzania Development Gateway (2006) writing on characteristics and behavior of African markets and market institutions - consequences for economic Growth suggested that for reform programs to be successful, policy that enhances efficiency and competitiveness of the African factor markets must be put in place.
The author of Tanzania Development Gateway (TDG) added that the SMEs have been urged to form regional apex organizations that promote and safeguard their interests. This was advised by coordinator of the property and Business Formalization Program during a workshop in Dar es Salaam. There was also a significant increases in lending to various economic associates in November 2005.
The Financial Times reporter writes that lack of collateral for bank loans will be taken care of by SME credit Guarantee scheme, lack of business skills will be attached by entrepreneurship development programmes and the lack of information about markets and technology will be solved when the SIDO website is launched, and industrial information countries established.
4. POLICY REVIEW ON MICROENTERPRISE IN TANZANIA
In the year 2000, the Government approved a National Micro finances policy whose objective is to establish a basis for evolution of efficient and effective micro financial system that serves the low-income segment of the society.
4.1. Micro-credit Activities:-
Regulation № 17 (1 – 3) of 2005.
4.1.1. For purpose of these regulations, micro-credit means a credit accommodation whose security may include non-traditional collateral.
4.1.2. It may also be for an applicant who may lack formal financial statements and other accounting and operational records.
4.1.3. The companies engaged in Micro-credit shall specify the maximum amounts that can be approved at every level of discretion and procedural requirements and the internal controls to be maintained.
4.1.4. Micro-credit in excess of the equivalent of one percent (1%) of the core capital shall require the approval of every level of discretion including the Board of Directors.
4.1.5. Where the borrower lacks the registered security of immovable or movable property, a micro-credit shall be covered by:-
4.1.5.1. A reasonable non-traditional security or
4.1.5.2. A collateral substitute such as personal guarantee, contractual pledging of home or business assets or
4.1.5.3. Compulsory savings or group guarantee where members jointly guarantee each other’s loans.
4.1.5.4. Institutions engaged in micro-credit shall adopt the methodology determined by the Bank of Tanzania to assign identification numbers to their clients and to report a credit Reference data bank, their loan portfolio information in the format and with the frequency required by the Bank of Tanzania.
4.2 Fair lending Practices:-
Regulation 26 (1 – 5) of 2005.
4.2.1. The contract between a financial institution and the borrower shall state the nominal rate as well as commissions and fees either on annual or monthly basis.
4.2.2. The borrowers shall be permitted to make partial or
total prepayments on their micro-borrowings whereas penalties for prepayment if any, shall be described in the contract.
4.2.3. Imposition or asserting any contractual term or conditions granting the micro finance company authority to introduce unilateral modifications to interest rates or other loan conditions is prohibited.
4.2.4. The Micro-credit contract may establish an indexed interest rate, designed to vary in line with a reference rate published by the Bank of Tanzania.
4.2.5. The Bank of Tanzania shall monitor the collection practices in micro-credits and shall instruct institutions to discontinue that when in its opinion the collections are unfair and abusive.
4.3. National Economic Empowerment Programme
(One Billion for each Political region).
This is a grand government project whose objective is to empower economically the ordinary citizen from both the Urban and rural areas as well as promotion of employment.
4.3.1. General strategy of the fund.
4.3.1.1. Funds will be channeled through financial instructions.
4.3.1.2. The Banks participating in this programme will lend as soft loans.
4.3.1.3. They will use their ordinary Bank lending commercial principles.
4.3.1.4. No part of this fund may be used as allowances for any reason whatsoever.
4.3.2. Conditions to Borrowers.
4.3.2.1. The loans are for both individuals and groups.
4.3.2.2. Start up loans will be for group lending and not to individuals.
4.3.2.3. Borrowers should be verifiable and traceable.
4.3.2.4. No application fees will be charged.
4.3.2.5. No facility fee to be charged.
4.3.2.6. Simple loan application will be used.
4.3.2.7. Interest rate on loan will not exceed 10% per annum.
4.3.2.8. Loan applications that ensure promotion of employment will be more favored with lower interest rate.
4.3.2.9. Repayment period for any loan will not exceed three (3) years.
5. CONCLUSION.
In East Africa, Micro enterprise has not yet developed to a great extent. The majority of people who are involved in micro enterprise do so in their effort to reduce the hardships which come as a result of poverty. They are therefore, ill -educated, lack Capital, lack skills and training for various activities.
The financial institutional which try to lend money to the people only do so under very strict conditions which are not, in most cases, met by the majority. The savings and credit cooperative societies (SACCOS) whose aim is to mobilize savings and in turn lend to the members have also become the agents of micro enterprise financial institutions since they borrow money at very high interest and lend to their members at equally high interest.
The government intervention to correct the situation has not bored enough fruits since the money is also directed to the same financial institutions whose terms, the majority have failed to meet for example president of Tanzania’s 21 billions to various regions in Tanzania.
Therefore it is only through training and good governance and accountability that East Africa Countries may realize a meaningful micro enterprise development.
REFFERENCE:
Tovo, Maurizia (1991) Micro enterprises among Village women, in Tanzania, (Research article). Practical Action Publishing. Available at http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content /itpub/sedv/1991/00000002/00000001/art 00004 last accessed on October 4, 2007.
National Economic Empowerment programmes, a paper prepared by Central Bank of Tanzania 2005.
Choice Humanitarian (Jan, 9, 007), Kenyan women New micro enterprise (Article). Available at http://www.choice humanitarian.org/index.php? S = news ٤ p = Kenya ٤ m = 15.
Mushi, Theo (1 Jan 2004), IPP media, financial water: is National micro financing policy working? (Article).
UNITUS (2004), Poverty and microfinance: Innovative solutions Global poverty (Article). Available at http://www.Unitus.com/section /media/media_main.asp
Kesterton, Anne (1995), sustainability of financial services provision for the poor. The case of Kenya (Research paper). Also available at http://www.tve.org/ho/doc.cfm?aid = 639
Kester ton, Anne (1997), sustainability of financial services provision for the poor. The case of Kenya (Research paper). Also available at http://www.tve.org/ho/doc.cfm?aid = 639
Micro links (2007), the Tanzania field study: analyzing the integration of MSE s’ in value chain (Research paper). Available at http://www.microlinks.org/ev - en.php/ID = 14538 _201٤ ID2 = Do_TOPIC.
Tanzania Development Gateway (2006), Tanzania Business Portal Civil society Database (Articles) available at http://www.Tanzaniagateway.org.
Odd – Helge fjeldstad (2005), Bribes, taxes and property rights: Business constraints for micro enterprise in Tanzania (Conference paper) available at http://www.cmi. No/publications/publication/? 2227 = bribes - taxes - and – property – rights.
CIDA (8June 2007), Tanzania micro-enterprise Business Development project (Audit report). Available at http://www.acdi – cida.g.ca/CIDA WEB/acdicidia.asf/en/REV – 218132252 - PM4
Ludwina, Joseph (2004), Sub – Saharan Africa Press Releases: Uganda – Uganda Village Phone Initiative Adopts Bangladesh Model (Article) Available at http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/africa.nsf/content /selected PR? (Open Document ٤ UNID = 4BEF73………………
FSD (2004) MICRO – ENTERPRICE/MICROFINANCE ISSUES IN Kenya. (Article) - Available at http://www.fsdintenational.org/19 = ntlopps/Country/Kenya/Microfinance.
Berger, Louis Group (2002) inc, Tanzania Research Protocol:MicroReport 1 # 72 (Research paper). Available at http://www.microlinks – org/ev02.php?ID = 17160_201٤ ID2 = DO – TOPIC
Impact! HIV/AIDS (2004), Uganda micro-enterprise Development (Project report) available at http://www world vision .org/world vision/appeals.nst/stable/in_Uganda_vtt.
FSD (2004), Micro – enterprise/microfinance issues in Uganda (article), Available at http://www.fsdinternational.org/?9 = pps/country/Uganda/microfinances.
Global Connection (2004), micro enterprise project in Uganda empowers the poor. Available at http://www.globalconnections.co.uk
1. Introduction
2. Theoretical Literature review
2.1. Historical background
2.2. Definition of micro enterprise
3. Empirical Literature review
3.1. Micro enterprise in East Africa
3.2. Financing micro enterprises
3.3. Impact of micro enterprise
3.4. Problems facing Micro enter price
4. Policy Review on Micro enter price in Tanzania
4.1. Micro-credit activities
4.2. Fair Lending practices
4.3. National Economic Empowerment programme: one Billion for each Political region.
4.4. General strategy of the fund
4.5. Conditions for Borrowers
5. Conclusion
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper will attempt to explore Micro enter-price in East African Countries, that is, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. It will be divided into four major categories, that is, Theoretical review, empirical review, Tanzanian policy on micro enterprise and the conclusion. Our approach will basically revolve around historical literature review.
Under theoretical literature review, we shall attempt to give the historical background of EA and how the differences in political ideologies have created differences in economic attainment of the three countries. We shall also try to look at the definition of micro enterprise in this section.
Under empirical literature review review, this paper will examine the real micro enterprises in EA by drawing examples from the three countries. Other sub-topics that will be discussed here include the financing micro enterprises, the impact of micro enterprises on development, problems facing micro enterprise and the future prospects of micro enterprises.
We shall then embark on policy review on micro enterprise in Tanzania.
We shall then further give the conclusion by offering the opinions and recommendations where necessary.
2. THEORITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW.
2.1. Historical Background.
The three East African countries Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda have along history of having several aspects of life in common. The three countries were one time acolony for Britain after the Second World War. They later formed East African community which collapsed in 1977 and today they have formed another one. They also speak a common language-- Kiswahili.
The differences among the three countries was in their political ideologies. After the Arusha Declaration in 1967, Tanzania became a socialist country while Kenya and Uganda remained to be Capitalist. However, Tanzania is now exercising a mixed type of Economy after a binding with Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP)-- a programme initiated by International monetary fund (IMF).
Due to the differences in ideologies and social political and economies, the three East African countries have found themselves in quite different situations.
In Tanzanian, reports by Micro Links states that it is the poorest countries in the World and has a population of 38 million. The economy depends heavily on agriculture, which accounts for almost half of GDP, provides 85% of exports and employs 80% of the work force. Topography and climatic conditions, however limit cultivated crops to only 4% of the land area. Some 28 million Tanzanian live in rural area, which has approximately 5 million households.
Foundation for Sustainable Development (FSD) reporting on Kenyan micro-enterprise / micro finance Issues:- Two major factors play into Kenyan’s economic situations – wealth disparity and lack of economic growth. Country’s richest 10% of the Kenyan population controls almost half of the nation’s wealth while the poorest 10% hold less than 1%. The continuous extraction of resources from the poor to the rich perpetuates many economic influences, including lack of hope that hard work will pay off - a belief that is vital to the economy and motivation of developed nations.
In Uganda, World vision under Impact HIV /AIDS writing on Uganda Micro enterprise Development says that there are two million children – nearly 20% of the country’s total – have lost one or both parents to HIV/AIDS. This epidemic has created adverse set of challenges and needs for the orphans and children left behind. Without financial support, care or protection of a parent in their lives, many are forced to leave school to care for other family members infected with HIV/AID or to engage in child labour. They often experience emotional distress, hunger, poverty, homelessness and physical and sexual abuse. To make matters worse, they also run a heightened risk of contracting HIV/AIDS.
2.2. Definition of Micro enterprise.
According to Rashid M. Mfaume and Wilhelm Leonard, in their paper Small Business entrepreneurship in Dar – es – salaam, Tanzania. Exploring problems and prospects for future Development, referring to Lome convention, micro enterprises are normally formal sectors with as many as 10 workers although there are usual part-time assistants. They went a head to say that an entrepreneur is a person or a group of persons who compete through innovations, discover through networks; persuade resource owner and indeed bear risk.
3. IMPIRICAL LITERATURE REVIEW.
3.1. Micro enter prise in East Africa.
According to Choice humanitarian on Kenyan women New Micro enterprise, 17 women of Bahakwenu in the Taru location which is part of the Kwale District and the Samburu District have formed cooperative that is in the business of making and selling soap. They use the Aloe plant as one of the main ingredients of the soap. They were taught how to make soap by Rasilimal foundation. They have since used this simple technology to form a business.
UNCHS (Habitat) together with Manus Coffey associates carried out a project to find an appropriate technology to empty pit latrines, which led to the development of the vacu-tug. Vacu-tug has the responsibility of emptying 500 liters of waste in Kibera Nairobi, Kenya. In the process vacu-tug has solved the problem of the “Wrap and throw” method, known locally as the “flying toilet,” the way of disposing extreta.
In Uganda, a young window Joyce, a member of Trickle Up, launched her own business of making bricks. Since the construction of schools and homes is booming in Fort portal, Uganda, Joyce is able to bring about $700 per year with two staff members. She has so far been joined by other young windows and initiated a basket weaving business, which brings Joyce additional income.
Joe Gisbey writing on “Micro-enterprise project in Uganda empowers the poor” under local NGO, Links International operating under Global Connections, says how a lady has been successful, in carrying out small scale business. The author says, Nansikombi Berna - The charcoal/Tomatoes lady operating in Gerenge, a small fishing Village in Uganda has diversified her business buying Charcoal from the Islands and selling it to her fellow villagers.
In Kampala, Uganda, November 18, 2003 – Uganda’s vices President; Professor Gilbert launched “MTN Village Phone” an IFC-Supported joint venture between leading telecommunications company, MTN Uganda and Grameen foundation USA. Village phone operators take micro loans for the equipment as little as US$ 230 to be repaid over a period of up to 12 months. These village telephone operators earns as much as US700 per year-roughly twice the national average.
Rashid M. Mfaume, writing on “small entrepreneurship in Dar – es – Salaam” Says the ideological antipathy towards informal sector is buttressed by social conflict. One can witness the arrest of itinerant traders and other small business people setting up their merchandise along the pavements of busiest streets such as Azikwe, New post office, Telephone house, Samora Avenue and Kivukoni.
Mlowe, Towo and Bamanyisa in their research report entitled Crop diversification reports that in Bukoba, farmers are organized by a farmer’s network known as MAYAWA. The majority of the members are Vanilla farmers while 9.4 per cent are Mushroom farmers. A kilo of raw mushroom can fetch between Tshs: 2,500 and Tshs: 3000. The farmers sell the beans at a price that ranges between Tshs: 5000 for grade B and Tshs: 10,000 for grade A.
In Iringa district, a group of farmers at Ihemi and Kilolo Village grow Paprika under the Tanzania Spices (Foreign Company) terms and conditions. Paprika enables the farmers to fatch Tshs. 1070 per kilogram for grade A, Tshs: 560 per Kg. for grade B and Tshs: 250 per Kg. for Grade C. A farmer can produce between 500 to 700 Kgs. per harvest once a year.
In Hai, a cooperative society known as HABECO was formed to unite the beekeepers. The members of group have between 30 and 100 beehives per person. This enables the members to fetch between Tshs: 1,080,000 to 3,200,000 per year for raw honey.
3.2. FINANCING MICRO ENTERPRISES.
Theo Mushi (2004) writing for financial times, on “Financial watch: Is National Micro financing policy working?, observes that there is department in the Bank of Tanzania which is responsible for implementing the policy. The providers of funds for micro-enterprises are many from both domestic and external resources. These include UK NGO GATSBY TRUST (Tanzania), Hans Seidof Foundation, SIDO, East Africa Development Bank, African Development Bank, bilateral donors, UNDP and the government as well as the private sector under the umbrella of the private sector Initiative (PSI).
Other players in microfinancing are Community bank is Mwanga, Mufindi and Dar es Salaam and the Kilimanjaro Co-operation Bank.
In Uganda, International finance Corporation (IFC) has provided funding for the projects from its SME capacity Building Facility, its granted innovative small business pilots and partnership.
. Links International has pioneered a micro enterprise development project at Wellspring Uganda in which more than 1300 families have been taken out of poverty since the year 2000.
Anne Martin (nee kesterton), 1997, writing on “Sustainability of financial services provision for the poor; the case of Kenya, points out that credit programmes in several countries have proved to operate viably on commercial principles whilst lending to the poor. The analysis differentiates between specialist and no-specialists agencies and between a poverty-alleviation and a macro enterprise-lending approach arguing that the target client and methodology is subtly different in each case. PRIDE’s micro enterprise lending tending to deviate from KREP Juhudi poverty-alleviation methodology but both demonstrated organizational flexibility and financial discipline.
In Uganda, World visions MFIs help families care for the HIV/AIDS children by grating them loans to start business, purchase supplies and equipment, expand operations, market goods or services and hire additional staff. With as extra income, this caregivers can afford to provide the nutrition food, improved living conditions, health care, and education these children need.
3.3 IMPACT OF MICRO-ENTERPRISES ON DEVELOPMENT
Tanzania Development Gateway (2006) stated that micro and small enterprises are an important factor for economic development and industrialization in poor countries. The 2005 world Development Report suggests that creating sustainable jobs and opportunities for micro-entrepreneurs are the partway out of poverty for poor people.
UNITUS - Innovative solution to Global poverty, writing on poverty and microfinance had this to say, women constitute the bulk of those who need microfinance services -70% of the world poor are women. Therefore, targeting women has also proved to be a successful, efficient economic development tool..
Micro-enterprise for pit latrine in running vacu - tug achieved the following objectives:
- It provides a services that is affordable and environmentally sustainable
- It improves the sanitation situation of the area being serviced.
- Decrease the pollution and contamination of groundwater recourses
- It improves general aesthetics of the surrounding area.
- It reduce the impact of diseases such as cholera and typhoid and diarrhea
- It provide employment to the urban poor
- It serves the people
- It provides a services that is accessible and easily obtained, efficient and reliable
3.4 PROBLEMS FACING MICRO-ENTERPRISE
Rashid M. Mfaume, writing on SPIV’S (Suspected Person and Itinerant Vagrant), has it that thugs and city askaris are among crime committers and any entrepreneur can be victim of criminal Acts. The result indicated that 81.5% of the respondents had the opinion that any petty trader is a potential victim of criminal behavior-are not certain of safety and security.
The author of Tanzania Development Gateway (2006) writing a policy Dialogue Seminar Paper on opportunities and challenges for Rural SMEs Development, said that a multitude of problems make it difficult for SMEs to exploit potentials for further employment and wealth creation, the fundamental one being limited capacity in terms of attitude, motivation, skills and experiences.
Theo Mushi (2004) of financial times wrote that the constraints facing micro-enterprises and SMEs, are lack of collateral for bank loans and lack of business skills. The author of Financial Times added that there is lack of information about markets and technology.
3.5 FUTURE PROSPECTS OF MICRO ENTERPRISES
Make Laiser, the director of SIDO while closing the seminar for SMEs in, March 2006 said that 40 entrepreneurs out of 300 have managed to access the international market through the assistance of ACCES. This five years plan is aimed at assisting up to 300 entrepreneurs.
Tanzania Development Gateway (2006) writing on characteristics and behavior of African markets and market institutions - consequences for economic Growth suggested that for reform programs to be successful, policy that enhances efficiency and competitiveness of the African factor markets must be put in place.
The author of Tanzania Development Gateway (TDG) added that the SMEs have been urged to form regional apex organizations that promote and safeguard their interests. This was advised by coordinator of the property and Business Formalization Program during a workshop in Dar es Salaam. There was also a significant increases in lending to various economic associates in November 2005.
The Financial Times reporter writes that lack of collateral for bank loans will be taken care of by SME credit Guarantee scheme, lack of business skills will be attached by entrepreneurship development programmes and the lack of information about markets and technology will be solved when the SIDO website is launched, and industrial information countries established.
4. POLICY REVIEW ON MICROENTERPRISE IN TANZANIA
In the year 2000, the Government approved a National Micro finances policy whose objective is to establish a basis for evolution of efficient and effective micro financial system that serves the low-income segment of the society.
4.1. Micro-credit Activities:-
Regulation № 17 (1 – 3) of 2005.
4.1.1. For purpose of these regulations, micro-credit means a credit accommodation whose security may include non-traditional collateral.
4.1.2. It may also be for an applicant who may lack formal financial statements and other accounting and operational records.
4.1.3. The companies engaged in Micro-credit shall specify the maximum amounts that can be approved at every level of discretion and procedural requirements and the internal controls to be maintained.
4.1.4. Micro-credit in excess of the equivalent of one percent (1%) of the core capital shall require the approval of every level of discretion including the Board of Directors.
4.1.5. Where the borrower lacks the registered security of immovable or movable property, a micro-credit shall be covered by:-
4.1.5.1. A reasonable non-traditional security or
4.1.5.2. A collateral substitute such as personal guarantee, contractual pledging of home or business assets or
4.1.5.3. Compulsory savings or group guarantee where members jointly guarantee each other’s loans.
4.1.5.4. Institutions engaged in micro-credit shall adopt the methodology determined by the Bank of Tanzania to assign identification numbers to their clients and to report a credit Reference data bank, their loan portfolio information in the format and with the frequency required by the Bank of Tanzania.
4.2 Fair lending Practices:-
Regulation 26 (1 – 5) of 2005.
4.2.1. The contract between a financial institution and the borrower shall state the nominal rate as well as commissions and fees either on annual or monthly basis.
4.2.2. The borrowers shall be permitted to make partial or
total prepayments on their micro-borrowings whereas penalties for prepayment if any, shall be described in the contract.
4.2.3. Imposition or asserting any contractual term or conditions granting the micro finance company authority to introduce unilateral modifications to interest rates or other loan conditions is prohibited.
4.2.4. The Micro-credit contract may establish an indexed interest rate, designed to vary in line with a reference rate published by the Bank of Tanzania.
4.2.5. The Bank of Tanzania shall monitor the collection practices in micro-credits and shall instruct institutions to discontinue that when in its opinion the collections are unfair and abusive.
4.3. National Economic Empowerment Programme
(One Billion for each Political region).
This is a grand government project whose objective is to empower economically the ordinary citizen from both the Urban and rural areas as well as promotion of employment.
4.3.1. General strategy of the fund.
4.3.1.1. Funds will be channeled through financial instructions.
4.3.1.2. The Banks participating in this programme will lend as soft loans.
4.3.1.3. They will use their ordinary Bank lending commercial principles.
4.3.1.4. No part of this fund may be used as allowances for any reason whatsoever.
4.3.2. Conditions to Borrowers.
4.3.2.1. The loans are for both individuals and groups.
4.3.2.2. Start up loans will be for group lending and not to individuals.
4.3.2.3. Borrowers should be verifiable and traceable.
4.3.2.4. No application fees will be charged.
4.3.2.5. No facility fee to be charged.
4.3.2.6. Simple loan application will be used.
4.3.2.7. Interest rate on loan will not exceed 10% per annum.
4.3.2.8. Loan applications that ensure promotion of employment will be more favored with lower interest rate.
4.3.2.9. Repayment period for any loan will not exceed three (3) years.
5. CONCLUSION.
In East Africa, Micro enterprise has not yet developed to a great extent. The majority of people who are involved in micro enterprise do so in their effort to reduce the hardships which come as a result of poverty. They are therefore, ill -educated, lack Capital, lack skills and training for various activities.
The financial institutional which try to lend money to the people only do so under very strict conditions which are not, in most cases, met by the majority. The savings and credit cooperative societies (SACCOS) whose aim is to mobilize savings and in turn lend to the members have also become the agents of micro enterprise financial institutions since they borrow money at very high interest and lend to their members at equally high interest.
The government intervention to correct the situation has not bored enough fruits since the money is also directed to the same financial institutions whose terms, the majority have failed to meet for example president of Tanzania’s 21 billions to various regions in Tanzania.
Therefore it is only through training and good governance and accountability that East Africa Countries may realize a meaningful micro enterprise development.
REFFERENCE:
Tovo, Maurizia (1991) Micro enterprises among Village women, in Tanzania, (Research article). Practical Action Publishing. Available at http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content /itpub/sedv/1991/00000002/00000001/art 00004 last accessed on October 4, 2007.
National Economic Empowerment programmes, a paper prepared by Central Bank of Tanzania 2005.
Choice Humanitarian (Jan, 9, 007), Kenyan women New micro enterprise (Article). Available at http://www.choice humanitarian.org/index.php? S = news ٤ p = Kenya ٤ m = 15.
Mushi, Theo (1 Jan 2004), IPP media, financial water: is National micro financing policy working? (Article).
UNITUS (2004), Poverty and microfinance: Innovative solutions Global poverty (Article). Available at http://www.Unitus.com/section /media/media_main.asp
Kesterton, Anne (1995), sustainability of financial services provision for the poor. The case of Kenya (Research paper). Also available at http://www.tve.org/ho/doc.cfm?aid = 639
Kester ton, Anne (1997), sustainability of financial services provision for the poor. The case of Kenya (Research paper). Also available at http://www.tve.org/ho/doc.cfm?aid = 639
Micro links (2007), the Tanzania field study: analyzing the integration of MSE s’ in value chain (Research paper). Available at http://www.microlinks.org/ev - en.php/ID = 14538 _201٤ ID2 = Do_TOPIC.
Tanzania Development Gateway (2006), Tanzania Business Portal Civil society Database (Articles) available at http://www.Tanzaniagateway.org.
Odd – Helge fjeldstad (2005), Bribes, taxes and property rights: Business constraints for micro enterprise in Tanzania (Conference paper) available at http://www.cmi. No/publications/publication/? 2227 = bribes - taxes - and – property – rights.
CIDA (8June 2007), Tanzania micro-enterprise Business Development project (Audit report). Available at http://www.acdi – cida.g.ca/CIDA WEB/acdicidia.asf/en/REV – 218132252 - PM4
Ludwina, Joseph (2004), Sub – Saharan Africa Press Releases: Uganda – Uganda Village Phone Initiative Adopts Bangladesh Model (Article) Available at http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/africa.nsf/content /selected PR? (Open Document ٤ UNID = 4BEF73………………
FSD (2004) MICRO – ENTERPRICE/MICROFINANCE ISSUES IN Kenya. (Article) - Available at http://www.fsdintenational.org/19 = ntlopps/Country/Kenya/Microfinance.
Berger, Louis Group (2002) inc, Tanzania Research Protocol:MicroReport 1 # 72 (Research paper). Available at http://www.microlinks – org/ev02.php?ID = 17160_201٤ ID2 = DO – TOPIC
Impact! HIV/AIDS (2004), Uganda micro-enterprise Development (Project report) available at http://www world vision .org/world vision/appeals.nst/stable/in_Uganda_vtt.
FSD (2004), Micro – enterprise/microfinance issues in Uganda (article), Available at http://www.fsdinternational.org/?9 = pps/country/Uganda/microfinances.
Global Connection (2004), micro enterprise project in Uganda empowers the poor. Available at http://www.globalconnections.co.uk
RESEARCH NO.2: BOKEO FOOD SECURITY
TABLE OF CONTENT
1. Introduction………………………………………………………………...............2
2. Theoretical literature review………………………………………………………..3
2.1. Project profile……………………………………………………………………..3
2.2. Definition of terms………………………………………………………………. 4
3. Empirical literature review………………………………………………………… 4
3.1. The extent to which the project addressed the causes of poverty………………….4
3.2. How the project contributed to the development goals……………………………8
4. Personal Perspective: Critical analysis of the project………………………………10
5. Policy issues on food security in Tanzania…………………………………………..15
6. Lessons that we can learn from Bokeo food security project for
poverty reduction in Tanzania………………………………………………………16
7. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………18
8. References………………………………………………………………………… 19
1. INTRODUCTION
In an attempt to analyze the downloaded project document, our paper will be divided into the following sub-heading: Project profile, Definition of terms, How the project addressed the causes of poverty, How the project contributed to the development goals, critical analysis of the project and the conclusion.
Under the project profile, we shall identify the project title and its location .We shall then mention the financial sponsors of the project and give briefly the background of the country hosting project.
Upon completing project profile, we shall embark on definition of the terms. The major terms worth definition in this paper are poverty and development.
This paper will then examine the extent to which the project addressed the causes of poverty. In this case, Stan Burkey (1993), People first, will provide great aid.
The paper will then explore the contribution of the project to the development goals by using the development indicators. The People first, by Stan Burkey, will also be of much help in this regard.
With the help of CED principles, the paper will critically analyze the project through various level of its development. That is, from its initiation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation to the adaptation stage.
We shall also explore Tanzania’s economy with the aim trying to identify its ability in ensuring food security. Our levels of focus will be agriculture, fishing and livestock.
We shall then try to examine the lessons that we can from Bokeo Food Security Project in our effort to reduce poverty in Tanzania.
Finally, we shall give the conclusion by trying to reflect the activities of the project in relation to poverty, development and its ability to involve the CED principles. At this stage, we shall also be able to cite the weaknesses of the project and possibly offer the solutions.
2. THEORITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. PROJECT PROFILE
The name of project is Bokeo Food Security.
The project is located in Bokeo Province in Lao People's Democratic Republic in Asia. This a poor country with a per capita GDP ranking at 16 out of 206 according to the World Bank Development indicators, and 140 out of 176 in the UNDP Human Development Index.
The project timeframe is forty years, from 1994 to 2033. However, our analysis will be based on the report and evaluation issued in 2005- the project Mid-Term Review/ Evaluation (MTR/E) carried out during the project's third year of operation.
The project is co-financed by International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Government of Lao (GOL) and GTZ, with a total direct budget of USD 15 330 000.
The project is located in five districts: Houayxai, Tonpheung, Meung, Phaoudom, and Paktha. The target population living in the project area consists of rural communities which do not have an assured food security. They are estimated to be around 101 500 or about 17 500 households.
The general objective of the project is to improve food security in five districts in Bokeo Province through development objective of achieving more secure life and improving the income generating potential for rural population.
2.3. DEFINITION OF TERMS
2.3.1. Poverty
Poverty can be defined in terms of basic needs. A group of development workers in Uganda defined absolute poverty as the inability of an individual, a community or a nation to satisfactorily meet its basic needs. They defined relative poverty as the conditions in which basic needs are met but where the have an inability to meet the perceived needs and desires in addition to basic needs. (Stan Burkey (1993) chapter 1)
2.3.2. Development
According to Development theorist, development is essentially a question of increasing gross levels of saving and investment (both internal and external, private and state) until the economy reached a take off point into self-sustaining development. (Stan Burkey (1993) chapter 2)
3. EMPIRICAL LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1. THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE PROJECT ADDRESSED THE CAUSES OF POVERTY
3.1.1. Lack of transport
The project evaluation report addressed lack of transport as a cause of poverty. It was reported that 38 km of rural roads have been built or upgraded with funds from the IFAD loan and a further 16km were under construction. They further reported that construction of rural infrastructure plays a significant role in poverty alleviation: road construction has led to more than 50% reduction in transport costs for freight and passengers. It has also increased the village-gate prices of crops (maize prices has risen on average by 27% in the areas reached by project-built roads) and of non-timber forest products (palm nuts are sold at prices 20% higher in villages along the roads, and sandalwood prices are 23% higher).
3.1.2. Lack of market
Lack of market for the village products due to inaccessibility has been addressed. More crops are now being sold at higher price and therefore the effective demand also has been improved.
3.1.3. Lack of diversification
Lack of diversification as a cause of poverty has been addressed following the introduction of new crops such as mushrooms and ginger with varying success. There has also been introduction of new rice cultivars, which have been widely adopted. A number of fruit trees have been successfully distributed. There is also a number of animals that have been introduced in the area such as buffalo, ducks, sheep, pigs and goats.
Potential group formations under the irrigation, the pilot watershed management and the technology generation and dissemination aspects of the project may prove to be quite diverse and numerous. In addition, provision has been made to allow supports to groups like: Rice Bank Groups (RBGs) ; Oil Processing Groups (OPGs); Draught Animal Scheme Groups (DASGs) and Micro-irrigation Scheme Groups (MISs).
3.1.4. Ethnic Differences
The project also acknowledged ethnic differences as a cause of poverty. Ethnically the population of Bokeo can be considered under three main groups with Lao Loum (lowland) 40%, the Lao Theung (upland) 30%, Lao Soung (highland) about 20%. Since poverty is concentrated in minority communities, the project has assisted in reaching the poor.
3.1.5. Lack of Credit
Lack of credit as a cause of poverty has also been addressed. The interim evaluation, indicate that no rural credit mechanism was included in the design. The revolving fund included at Mid-term Review (MTR) has not been operational due to different views on procedures between project management, the Technical Assistance (TA) team and UNOPS. Among other activities that have suffered from lack of rural finance, the absence of credit has prevented farmers from clearing new lands, and women from setting up better marketing networks for their handcrafts and other produce.
3.1.6. Poor farming methods
The project further addressed poor farming method as the cause of poverty. While the Lao government policy is to reduce shifting agriculture, in practice, there few economically viable alternatives for upland farmers. The stabilization of their agriculture has reduced fallow cycles, no alternative sustainable sources of income have been created, and inefficient lowland irrigated land is available for those who need it.
3.1.7. Low level of knowledge and skills
Relatively low level of knowledge and skills among the project beneficiaries were also identified as the root cause of poverty. The traditional knowledge and skills available in project area is not only incapable of assuring household food security but are increasingly showing declining returns under traditional practices.
3.1.8. Low income
Low income as a cause of poverty has also been addressed. The results of modeling of the irrigation development suggest that annual incremental benefit per ha and hence the incremental benefit per household at full development would be: rehabilitated farm, USD 1290, upgraded farm, USD 1260, and the new farm, USD 1370.
3.1.9. Unemployment
Unemployment as a cause of poverty has also been addressed by the project. The project impact upon farm family labour will be very positive both in absolute number of days required in return per labour day. Additional labour is required in the rehabilitated and new irrigation from more intensive rice production.
3.1.10. Gender Discrimination
Gender discrimination which culminates to high level of illiteracy and lack of education has also been addressed in the project as a major cause of poverty. It is on this ground that the government has been urged to improve the effectiveness of the policies in favour of women.
The project has also made some provisions to ensure that women will participate in and benefit from all aspects of the project. The women's Union will be an integral part of management of the project and will be instrumental in ensuring the participation of women in all components. The project is expected to have an important impact upon their standard of living and quality of life in a number of ways.
3.1.11. Drug abuse
The project report addressed the issue of drug abuse, that is, opium cultivating and smoking as a cause of poverty. The report states that there may not be immediate impact of the project on local opium production but it will contribute in longer term to reduction of its production in Bokeo.
3.1.12. Poor Technology
Lack of proven and acceptable technology has also been an obstacle in achieving a sustainable upland farming system. Technology could help farmers convert from traditional slash-and-burn system to amore permanent cropping system.
3.1.13. Lack of water
Unreliable and insufficient water leads to low agricultural production in the lowland farming system has also been addressed as principal cause of poverty. There is thus a strong motivation on the part of the farmers to improve their traditional irrigation systems and to expand the area covered by irrigation but the principal constraint has been both insufficient paddy area and water.
3.1.14. Income Inequality
The project also addressed the issue of income inequality as a cause of poverty. In laying down the selection criteria and procedures, it cited the main aspect to be taken into account in the investment programme as social and economic equity. There would be no cut-off criteria in income terms; rather, the district and sub-district staff would be asked to identify the poorest communities among those making proposals for scheme rehabilitation or construction. Whenever practical and when they meet other criteria, the poorer communities would be given the first priority.
3.1.15. Resistance to Change
Finally, resistance to change has also been addressed as a fundamental cause of poverty. In working out the method of introduction and diffusion of the component products among the beneficiaries, a seed exchange scheme (SES) was put in place as means of substituting traditional seed for improved material. Farmers in all irrigation schemes supported through the project will be issued with mini-kits for technology promotion consisting of seeds relating to various improved cultural practices to be introduced under project.
3.2. HOW THE PROJECT CONTRIBUTED TO THE GOALS OF DEVELOPMENT
3.2.1. Irrigation Rehabilitation and Development
Financial provision has been made under the project for the upgrading of 480 ha (approximately 16 schemes), rehabilitation of 270 ha (approximately 9 schemes) and new development of 150 ha (approximately 5 schemes). Survey will be made on river flow and soils both with respect to schemes likely to be improved with project support and in areas with a major irrigation potential.
3.2.2. Agricultural-related Group Promotion
The project provides specifically for the development of approximate beneficiary organizations in relation to the agricultural components to be supported under the project. Two members of the five-person field contact team expected to work under the Technical assistance (TA) community development. One member of the team will be responsible for such organization in the lowland agro-ecological zone and the other member will be responsible for it in the upland/highland agro-ecological zones.
3.2.3. Technological Development
This sub-component seeks to address the problem of lack of articulated packages for improved farming systems in the project area and limited extension capability in the province. Three elements may be identified:
5.3.1. Observation trials;
5.3.2. A “Needs Assessment Survey” for constraints analysis of farm-level production;
5.3.3. Extension support.
3.2.4. Pilot Watershed Management
The watershed management is directed towards highland/upland farmers with a view to developing with them more profitably, sustainable and environmentally friendly farming systems. The programme will focus on village water supply provision as an entry activity and reforestation, introduction of pasture cover, fodder and nitrogen-fixing tree crops.
3.2.5. Veterinary Support and Livestock Development
The investment involved will allow the provincial Department of Livestock and Veterinary Services to reach most of the villages of the province with: a self-financing veterinary programme; an extension programme for improved livestock husbandry with emphasis on nutrition; and improved marketing facilities. The components will involve completion of the cool chain for supply of vaccines to district level and village level, training and equipping village veterinary workers (VVW’s), training provincial and district staff, training farmers in better animal health care and construction and supervision of sale yards.
3.2.6. Road Development
In addition to the OPEC-funded 29 km of paved road, a further 38 km of rural roads have been built or upgraded with funds from IFAD loan, and a further 16 km were under construction. In addition support is provided for the provincial Department of communication, transport, post and construction (DCTPC) in the form of office rehabilitation and furniture, equipment, transport and regional and international technical assistance in the field of road design, road construction supervision, bridge design and bridge construction supervision.
3.2.7. Health Development
The programme will have eight elements, these being: maternal and child health; birth spacing; nutrition promotion and education; communicable disease control with emphasis on malaria, acute respiratory infections and diarrhoea; water supply and sanitation; basic drug supply and training in their use; health information materials development and establishment of community health education and provision process based on beneficiary groupings and dialogue. Implementation will be through the Department of Public health supported by the office of Technical Assistance, Advisory and support unit for the project. So far IFAD fund has been used for the construction of health centre.
3.2.8. Education
To date, 15 primary schools have been built and a further 7 rehabilitated. A further 4 educational buildings are either designed or contracted. The impact of these buildings cannot be measured immediately but is clearly assisting and improving the school attendance among girls, in particular.
3.2.9. Institutional Support and Community Development
Community Development activities have been implemented by the Technical Assistance (TA) team and include adult literacy training, village-level hygiene improvement- was including the supply of latrines and the impregnation of mosquito nets- as well as the formulation of village Development Plans. In addition, provision has been made for five-person beneficiary contact team under the leadership of a long- term, internationally recruited TA community Development Expert.
4. PERSONAL PERSPECTIVE: CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE PROJECT
4.1. CED is Inclusive
During the Participatory Research Assessment for this project the needs of the farmers were divided into eight main topics, which now became the eight objectives of the project. These eight objectives could be summarized into one development objective for the project- to achieve a more secure life and improve the income generating potential for the rural population. In their attempt to identify the needs of the community, they adhered to CED principle of inclusive. This principle states that every community is made up of people with different interests and needs, having a CED plan that meets the needs of the whole community, means consulting and involving all members of the community.
However, the GTZ, IFAD and Government of Lao (GOL) practitioners went to the group of farmers with the aim of improving food security and therefore all their discussion revolved around their main objective. So this could not fully give the farmers an opportunity to wholesomely express their needs. There were other needs such as market access which was ignored.
4.2. CED is Process
If community is to do CED, the people have to get together, organize themselves and develop a plan. Often they do this by identifying their strength and assets and deciding how they can be used to help the community become stronger, socially and economically. The communities can turn to CED practitioner but the goals that are set and things that they need to be done are delivered upon and carried out by the people who live in the community.
However, in this project, provision has been made for five-person beneficiary contract team under the leadership of a long- term, internationally recruited Technical assistance (TA) community Development Expert. These five contact team members will have responsibility for beneficiary organization in relation to lowland agriculture, upland / highland agriculture, health, education and participatory development. Further provision has also been made for 17 person/months of development management/institution-building, consultancies and four person\months of community development consultancy. Therefore, there is no provision that was made for local leadership.
Further violation of “CED is a Process” principle was under education provision component. In trying to identify and establish education–cum–development in the province, the process started with discussions with villagers on their immediate practical educational needs. But implementation was being done through the Department of Education supported by the Technical Assistance (TA) and Advisory Support Unit (ASU) of the project.
4.3. CED is the Development of People
Key to the success of CED are committed leaders and participation by abroad range of community members. Sometimes in order to participate and to be effective, people need to learn how to organize themselves, how to work together and how to cooperate. They may also need training programs and education to help them achieve their goals. “People Development” helps the community take control of its future.
With reference to the project, there have been over 2400 village-level participants in training activities, including 31% of women, though the total number of trainees is probably about half as most trainees have been involved in more than one training course. Training has taken place in crop production (horticulture, mushroom cultivation, fruit tree propagation), livestock husbandry, rural credit, non- formal education, community development and health. A further 423 participants have been government staff trained in rural credit, education, community development, rural infrastructure and institution building activities. In addition, 10 study tours have taken place in Laos and in Thailand for line agency staff and farmers.
However the evaluation report points out that although the project targeted minority populations, the targeting of the women and of poorer people within communities have been neglected. Very few women have been trained, even in subjects which are of prime interest to them, such as livestock. Poorer people have not been given priority for project support within communities.
Furthermore, Community Development activities have been operated entirely through the Technical Assistance (TA) team, and implemented by their staff. As a result, local government Rural Development and Women’s Union staff have not developed the capacity to assist communities in mobilization and other community development activities, nor have community members developed a capacity for self-management.
4.4. CED is Collaborative
In order to accomplish their goals, communities often build partnerships with other communities, with educational organizations, government and regional development agencies. Partnerships like these give people access to knowledge and resources that might not be available in their own community.
As for Bokeo food security project, community mobilization and participatory Development was to be undertaken through institutional, financial and other sustainability considerations. The most important institutional point of contact at village level between the project-related staff and beneficiaries was the village Development Committee (VCD). A key aspect to establishing the participatory process was the building up of confidence between beneficiaries and the project with the understanding that adequate incentives was to be provided to enhance community participation.
The report further points out that under the current Lao PDR structure, it would be inconceivable for the project to by pass VDCs since they are the lowest level of the government. However, serious management problems which dogged project implementation with lack of cooperation and coordination between National Project Management and the TA team, led to the latter to get involved in activities that were not intended at design, namely investment funding.
4.5. CED is founded upon Sustainability
When a community is deciding what they want to do they have to ask questions about sustainability. Sustainable development is multi-faceted and includes four central components namely: economic, political, social and environmental aspects.
Bokeo Food Security Project has made a major effort to avoid any increase in staff members. With the exception of the two group promoters, there was recruitment of only Village Veterinary Workers (VVWs). But after the first two to three years they would be self-financing and not part of the government payroll. Major activities such as the animal health programme and the irrigation programme have been designed to cover their operating costs and also a substantial part of the associated investment costs. The total incremental revenue to the government generated by the project is estimated to be around USD 32,000. This incremental revenue will be sufficient to cover the incremental recurrent expenditure arising from the livestock and agriculture production components.
However the sustainability component addressed only sustainable economic development. No political and social sustainability was put into consideration.
4.6. CED is a holistic approach to development
CED includes both social and economic development. It is sensitive to the local culture and rural environment.
According to Bokeo food security report, all projects interventions have been designed to be “environmentally friendly” even down to the incorporation of fish ladder in the irrigation development component. The road programmes are expected to be indirect, rather than direct in that the programme is mainly one of rehabilitation rather than new construction. However, the work on upland/highland production system should bring substantial environmental benefits in the longer term.
The report also had it that an economic internal rate of return (EIRR) was estimated on the basis of a built-up of incremental net benefits from the irrigation and livestock models. The expected incremental benefit stream was assured to continue for 30 years and as set against the economic project costs. This analysis produces a EIRR of 15%.
However, no incremental benefits were estimated for the roads, social services or institutional support and community Development components.
4.7. CED aims for diversification
Diversification means creating economic opportunities in a variety of different, smaller sectors, rather than relying on one single industry. This allows communities to ride out the boom and bust cycles so common when a town or region has only one major industry or employer.
Bokeo Food Security Project has made provision to allow support to groups like:
4.7.1. Rice Bank Groups (RBGs) - are a credit-in-kind device for back-stopping household food security.
4.7.2. Draught Animal Scheme Groups (DASs) - are “revolving” animal schemes to help meet the need for draught animal power associated with rice production development under the project and
4.7.3. Oil Processing Groups (OPGs) and Micro-irrigation Scheme Groups (MISs) - are demonstration vehicles for technologies related to improved and expanded food production and processing.
According to the evaluation write-up, however, the agriculture component has achieved little, involving a wide dispersal into trials of new crops without attention to marketing. Minimal attention has been given to the important sector of Non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Farmers introducing new crops, particularly fruit trees have not been provided with technical support needed.
4.8. CED is innovative
The CED process requires participants to ask not only “what is?” and “why?”, but also “what if?” and “why not?” This means finding new ways to use both our human, natural and material resources to create new opportunities.
Bokeo ford security project workshop was to be held within the first three months of the project. The monitoring and evaluation (M&E) workshop would be held to introduce the principles of M&E to the project staff and the key people involved with project execution and monitoring. Furthermore, the activities would rely heavily on donor support and external technical assistance for several years to come.
In the course of holding the workshop, the beneficiaries were not involved hence violating the “CED is innovative” principle. As if that was not enough, community development activities have also been operated entirely through the Technical Assistance (TA) team and implemented by their staff.
4. 9. CED is Long term
CED doesn’t happen overnight –successful CED means that people stay involved, that they get organized and that they keep reaching for their goals.
In Bokeo food security project, there are no immediate impact of the project on local opium production but it is expected that the project will contribute in the longer term to reduction of opium production in Bokeo. The project is also expected to benefit from the continuous presence of a GTZ advising team and by the strong emphasis placed by GTZ on the need for institutional strengthening and community mobilization.
In order to ensure the non violation of “CED is long-term” principle the Mid–term Review (MTR) should be constantly made so as to ensure the participation of majority. Greatest attention should also be paid to avoid Technical Assistance (TA) to act as either parallel or substitute implementing structure.
4.10. CED is participation
CED is development of the community, by the community, for the community. “Experts” from outside don’t take charge. The community takes the lead right from the beginning.
Under Bokeo food security project, the pilot watershed management will be composed of Provincial Agricultural Service (PAS) with Technical Assistance Support. A planning and monitoring officer was recruited, as a member of the Bokeo office, to be responsible for organizing studies and data collection and planning backup for the Project Manager and National Project Director.
However, the report also pointed out that farmers would receive training in techniques of scheme construction and maintenance and other technical aspects. But prior to this, session ought to have been held to assist farmer’s groups in organizing themselves, in assigning responsibilities, and in preparing work programme for scheme construction and in the drawing up of contracts.
5. POLICY ISSUES ON FOOD SECURITY IN TANZANIA
5.1. AGRICULTURE
The structure of Tanzanian economy reveals that agriculture still dominates the economy. The sector employs about 85% of the population’s workforce and accounts for over 50% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at factor cost and 75% of foreign exchange earnings. It is the main source of food supply and raw material for industrial sector, as well as the major market for industrial goods and services.
There are two product categories namely food and cash crops. Major food crops include maize, paddy (rice), sorghum, wheat, beans, cassava, potatoes and sugar canes. Major cash (export) crops are further subdivided into traditional and non-traditional products. Traditional crops are coffee, cotton, sisal, tea, cashew nuts, tobacco, pyrethrum and cloves. Non-traditional export crops include a wide range of exportable products, but the most common are groundnuts, cowpeas, wine grapes, sunflowers, soybeans, castor seeds, cardamoms, sesame seeds, palm oil seeds, copra, cut flowers, fruits and vegetables.
5.2. FISHING
Tanzanian’s potential fish resources are promising in both marine and fresh water as well as in aquaculture. Tanzania is endowed with natural water bodies located in every side of the country’s borders. In the North is Lake Victoria, in East is Lake Tanganyika, in the South are Lake Rukwa and Nyasa. The Indian Ocean surrounds the country in East Coast strip from north to south.
The annual yield in the fresh water fishing is about 307,150 metric tones while that of the coastal fisheries is around 51,669 metric tones. This figure excludes the Exclusive Economic Zones, which has substantial fish resources that are unexploited. The contribution of the fisheries sector to the economy is providing food, employment opportunities and foreign exchange earnings.
5.3. LIVESTOCK
Tanzania is among the top three countries in Africa boasting of having the largest livestock population. Other countries are Ethiopia and Sudan.
Livestock keeping contributes an average of 7% of the country’s GDP and about 13% of the country’s agricultural produce. Its annual performance stands at an average of 2.4%.
Tanzania’s official statistics indicate an estimate of 13.7 million cattle, 11.0 million goats and 3.6 million sheep. Importantly, this livestock resource provides a substitute for food imports. Each year about 500,000 tons of milk are produced, while consumption of meat reaches 360,000 tons per annum.
6. LESSONS THAT WE CAN LEARN FROM BOKEO FOOD SECURITY PROJECT FOR POVERTY REDUCTION IN TANZANIA
6.1. Improving Transport
The construction of rural infrastructure plays a significant role in poverty alleviation. This will reduce 50% of transport costs for freight and passengers. This will also increase the demand for rural produce since it will be more accessible. In turn, the prices of rural products will increase.
6.2. Encouragement of diversification
Introduction of new crops such as mushrooms ginger will also reduce poverty. Introduction of animals such as buffalo, ducks and tigers may be of paramount importance. In addition provision has to be made to allow supports to various groups.
6.3. Reduction of Ethnic Differences
The project also acknowledged ethnic differences as a cause of poverty. Though ethnic differences are not an issue in Tanzania but knowing its effect as scholars is also important. But it must be noted that poverty is normally concentrated in minority communities, so the project must help in reaching the poor.
6.4. Provision of Credit Facilities
The absence of credit may prevent farmers from clearing new lands, and women from setting up better marketing networks for their handcrafts and other produce. The technical assistance for any project must ensure that the revolving fund must be operational.
6.5. Improve Farming Methods
Though government policy may discourage shifting cultivation, in practice but there may be few economically viable alternatives for highland farmers. However, the stabilization of agriculture should not reduce fallow cycles.
6.6. Improvement of knowledge and skills
The traditional knowledge and skills available in project area should enable the household food security and hence avoid the increasingly declining returns under traditional practices.
6.7. Improving Income
The results of modeling of the irrigation development suggest that annual incremental benefit per ha and hence the incremental benefit per household at full development can be improved through rehabilitating, upgrading and establishing new farms.
6.8. Provision of Employment
Lack of employment can be reduced through establishment of projects. Additional labour is always required in the rehabilitation of farms and establishment of irrigation schemes.
6.7. Gender Equality
Gender discrimination which culminates to high level of illiteracy and lack of education has also been addressed in the project as a major cause of poverty. The government should be urged to improve the effectiveness of the policies in favour of women.
Some provisions should be made to ensure that women should participate in and benefit from all aspects of the project. The women's associations should be an integral part of management of the project and be instrumental in ensuring the participation of women in all components.
6.8. Encourage people to accept change
Resistance to change has also been addressed as a fundamental cause of poverty. In working out the method of introduction and diffusion of the component products among the beneficiaries, a scheme should be established in order to put in place the means of substituting traditional seeds for improved one. Farmers in all irrigation schemes supported through the project should be issued with mini-kits for technology promotion consisting of seeds relating to various improved cultural practices to be introduced under project.
6.9. Discouragement of Drug Abuse
The project report addressed the issue of drug abuse, that is, opium cultivating and smoking as a cause of poverty. There may not be immediate impact of the project on local opium production but it will contribute in longer term to reduction of its production in the project area.
6.10. Provision of Water
Unreliable and insufficient water leads to low agricultural production in the lowland farming system. There is need to motivate, on the part of the farmers, to improve their traditional irrigation systems and to expand the area covered.
6.11. Introduction of Modern Technology
Lack of proven and acceptable technology has also been an obstacle in achieving a sustainable upland farming system. Technology could help farmers convert from traditional slash-and-burn system to a more permanent cropping system.
7. CONCLUSION
Poverty in Bokeo Province is a compound product of the number of inter-related and naturally reinforcing and aggravating circumstances. There is no uni-dimensional solution to the project area’s poverty. Alleviating poverty will therefore require a multi-faceted approach consisting of individually small but cumulatively significant improvements on a number of fronts. The Bokeo food security project has tried to address a number of poverty causes and insofar as poverty is concentrated in minority communities has assisted the project in reaching the poor.
With regard to development, Bokeo food security project concentrated on social and economic development. It actually failed to address both human (personal) and political development. A project of such magnitude could have taken the initiative of addressing the democratic issues, particularly in their project planning and sharing of power. Lao People’s Democratic Republic had one time been ruled by a socialist government (1975) and therefore, there could be still some elements of dictatorship in terms of resource allocation. This was therefore an opportunity for the project to address such issues.
Human (personal) development which involves the individual’s development of self- respect, self –confident, self - reliant, cooperative and tolerant of others, was not in any point addressed. There were some youth who could seek some part-time jobs after spending several hours in the project area and none could raise his/her voice to complain over low salaries. This could have been due to fear of loosing even the little they were getting from the project.
The CED principles also came in handy. Some principles were partially addressed in the project proposal but in the Mid-Term Review, were not actually given the space they deserved. For instance, the community development activities were being implemented by Technical Assistance (TA) team, who in one time were involved in activities that were not intended at design, namely investment funding. But remedy for this can be training local government staff in the relevant management, participatory and accounting skills so that their way of working and work culture is changed so that it becomes demand-driven and in participatory manner.
In a nutshell, the most important lesson one can learn from this project is that once trained, district and village-level staff should be given more responsibility and authority with respect to financial management of government and project budgets. These responsibilities and power must be accompanied with procedures of financial reporting, monitoring and supervision in order to ensure accountability and transparency.
REFERENCE
1. Stan, Burkey. People first: “A guide to self-reliant participatory rural development”, Zed Books, London, chapter 1&2 (1993).
2. Lao People's Democratic Republic: Bokeo Food Security Project proposal, evaluation and report for 2005
3. Lecture notes: - Understanding CED
–What is CED?
4. U.S. Department of State: Bureau of African Affairs (December 2007)—United Republic
of Tanzania. Also available at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2843.htm
5. Tanzania Economy available at htt://www.tptanzania.co.tz/economy_body.html
1. Introduction………………………………………………………………...............2
2. Theoretical literature review………………………………………………………..3
2.1. Project profile……………………………………………………………………..3
2.2. Definition of terms………………………………………………………………. 4
3. Empirical literature review………………………………………………………… 4
3.1. The extent to which the project addressed the causes of poverty………………….4
3.2. How the project contributed to the development goals……………………………8
4. Personal Perspective: Critical analysis of the project………………………………10
5. Policy issues on food security in Tanzania…………………………………………..15
6. Lessons that we can learn from Bokeo food security project for
poverty reduction in Tanzania………………………………………………………16
7. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………18
8. References………………………………………………………………………… 19
1. INTRODUCTION
In an attempt to analyze the downloaded project document, our paper will be divided into the following sub-heading: Project profile, Definition of terms, How the project addressed the causes of poverty, How the project contributed to the development goals, critical analysis of the project and the conclusion.
Under the project profile, we shall identify the project title and its location .We shall then mention the financial sponsors of the project and give briefly the background of the country hosting project.
Upon completing project profile, we shall embark on definition of the terms. The major terms worth definition in this paper are poverty and development.
This paper will then examine the extent to which the project addressed the causes of poverty. In this case, Stan Burkey (1993), People first, will provide great aid.
The paper will then explore the contribution of the project to the development goals by using the development indicators. The People first, by Stan Burkey, will also be of much help in this regard.
With the help of CED principles, the paper will critically analyze the project through various level of its development. That is, from its initiation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation to the adaptation stage.
We shall also explore Tanzania’s economy with the aim trying to identify its ability in ensuring food security. Our levels of focus will be agriculture, fishing and livestock.
We shall then try to examine the lessons that we can from Bokeo Food Security Project in our effort to reduce poverty in Tanzania.
Finally, we shall give the conclusion by trying to reflect the activities of the project in relation to poverty, development and its ability to involve the CED principles. At this stage, we shall also be able to cite the weaknesses of the project and possibly offer the solutions.
2. THEORITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. PROJECT PROFILE
The name of project is Bokeo Food Security.
The project is located in Bokeo Province in Lao People's Democratic Republic in Asia. This a poor country with a per capita GDP ranking at 16 out of 206 according to the World Bank Development indicators, and 140 out of 176 in the UNDP Human Development Index.
The project timeframe is forty years, from 1994 to 2033. However, our analysis will be based on the report and evaluation issued in 2005- the project Mid-Term Review/ Evaluation (MTR/E) carried out during the project's third year of operation.
The project is co-financed by International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Government of Lao (GOL) and GTZ, with a total direct budget of USD 15 330 000.
The project is located in five districts: Houayxai, Tonpheung, Meung, Phaoudom, and Paktha. The target population living in the project area consists of rural communities which do not have an assured food security. They are estimated to be around 101 500 or about 17 500 households.
The general objective of the project is to improve food security in five districts in Bokeo Province through development objective of achieving more secure life and improving the income generating potential for rural population.
2.3. DEFINITION OF TERMS
2.3.1. Poverty
Poverty can be defined in terms of basic needs. A group of development workers in Uganda defined absolute poverty as the inability of an individual, a community or a nation to satisfactorily meet its basic needs. They defined relative poverty as the conditions in which basic needs are met but where the have an inability to meet the perceived needs and desires in addition to basic needs. (Stan Burkey (1993) chapter 1)
2.3.2. Development
According to Development theorist, development is essentially a question of increasing gross levels of saving and investment (both internal and external, private and state) until the economy reached a take off point into self-sustaining development. (Stan Burkey (1993) chapter 2)
3. EMPIRICAL LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1. THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE PROJECT ADDRESSED THE CAUSES OF POVERTY
3.1.1. Lack of transport
The project evaluation report addressed lack of transport as a cause of poverty. It was reported that 38 km of rural roads have been built or upgraded with funds from the IFAD loan and a further 16km were under construction. They further reported that construction of rural infrastructure plays a significant role in poverty alleviation: road construction has led to more than 50% reduction in transport costs for freight and passengers. It has also increased the village-gate prices of crops (maize prices has risen on average by 27% in the areas reached by project-built roads) and of non-timber forest products (palm nuts are sold at prices 20% higher in villages along the roads, and sandalwood prices are 23% higher).
3.1.2. Lack of market
Lack of market for the village products due to inaccessibility has been addressed. More crops are now being sold at higher price and therefore the effective demand also has been improved.
3.1.3. Lack of diversification
Lack of diversification as a cause of poverty has been addressed following the introduction of new crops such as mushrooms and ginger with varying success. There has also been introduction of new rice cultivars, which have been widely adopted. A number of fruit trees have been successfully distributed. There is also a number of animals that have been introduced in the area such as buffalo, ducks, sheep, pigs and goats.
Potential group formations under the irrigation, the pilot watershed management and the technology generation and dissemination aspects of the project may prove to be quite diverse and numerous. In addition, provision has been made to allow supports to groups like: Rice Bank Groups (RBGs) ; Oil Processing Groups (OPGs); Draught Animal Scheme Groups (DASGs) and Micro-irrigation Scheme Groups (MISs).
3.1.4. Ethnic Differences
The project also acknowledged ethnic differences as a cause of poverty. Ethnically the population of Bokeo can be considered under three main groups with Lao Loum (lowland) 40%, the Lao Theung (upland) 30%, Lao Soung (highland) about 20%. Since poverty is concentrated in minority communities, the project has assisted in reaching the poor.
3.1.5. Lack of Credit
Lack of credit as a cause of poverty has also been addressed. The interim evaluation, indicate that no rural credit mechanism was included in the design. The revolving fund included at Mid-term Review (MTR) has not been operational due to different views on procedures between project management, the Technical Assistance (TA) team and UNOPS. Among other activities that have suffered from lack of rural finance, the absence of credit has prevented farmers from clearing new lands, and women from setting up better marketing networks for their handcrafts and other produce.
3.1.6. Poor farming methods
The project further addressed poor farming method as the cause of poverty. While the Lao government policy is to reduce shifting agriculture, in practice, there few economically viable alternatives for upland farmers. The stabilization of their agriculture has reduced fallow cycles, no alternative sustainable sources of income have been created, and inefficient lowland irrigated land is available for those who need it.
3.1.7. Low level of knowledge and skills
Relatively low level of knowledge and skills among the project beneficiaries were also identified as the root cause of poverty. The traditional knowledge and skills available in project area is not only incapable of assuring household food security but are increasingly showing declining returns under traditional practices.
3.1.8. Low income
Low income as a cause of poverty has also been addressed. The results of modeling of the irrigation development suggest that annual incremental benefit per ha and hence the incremental benefit per household at full development would be: rehabilitated farm, USD 1290, upgraded farm, USD 1260, and the new farm, USD 1370.
3.1.9. Unemployment
Unemployment as a cause of poverty has also been addressed by the project. The project impact upon farm family labour will be very positive both in absolute number of days required in return per labour day. Additional labour is required in the rehabilitated and new irrigation from more intensive rice production.
3.1.10. Gender Discrimination
Gender discrimination which culminates to high level of illiteracy and lack of education has also been addressed in the project as a major cause of poverty. It is on this ground that the government has been urged to improve the effectiveness of the policies in favour of women.
The project has also made some provisions to ensure that women will participate in and benefit from all aspects of the project. The women's Union will be an integral part of management of the project and will be instrumental in ensuring the participation of women in all components. The project is expected to have an important impact upon their standard of living and quality of life in a number of ways.
3.1.11. Drug abuse
The project report addressed the issue of drug abuse, that is, opium cultivating and smoking as a cause of poverty. The report states that there may not be immediate impact of the project on local opium production but it will contribute in longer term to reduction of its production in Bokeo.
3.1.12. Poor Technology
Lack of proven and acceptable technology has also been an obstacle in achieving a sustainable upland farming system. Technology could help farmers convert from traditional slash-and-burn system to amore permanent cropping system.
3.1.13. Lack of water
Unreliable and insufficient water leads to low agricultural production in the lowland farming system has also been addressed as principal cause of poverty. There is thus a strong motivation on the part of the farmers to improve their traditional irrigation systems and to expand the area covered by irrigation but the principal constraint has been both insufficient paddy area and water.
3.1.14. Income Inequality
The project also addressed the issue of income inequality as a cause of poverty. In laying down the selection criteria and procedures, it cited the main aspect to be taken into account in the investment programme as social and economic equity. There would be no cut-off criteria in income terms; rather, the district and sub-district staff would be asked to identify the poorest communities among those making proposals for scheme rehabilitation or construction. Whenever practical and when they meet other criteria, the poorer communities would be given the first priority.
3.1.15. Resistance to Change
Finally, resistance to change has also been addressed as a fundamental cause of poverty. In working out the method of introduction and diffusion of the component products among the beneficiaries, a seed exchange scheme (SES) was put in place as means of substituting traditional seed for improved material. Farmers in all irrigation schemes supported through the project will be issued with mini-kits for technology promotion consisting of seeds relating to various improved cultural practices to be introduced under project.
3.2. HOW THE PROJECT CONTRIBUTED TO THE GOALS OF DEVELOPMENT
3.2.1. Irrigation Rehabilitation and Development
Financial provision has been made under the project for the upgrading of 480 ha (approximately 16 schemes), rehabilitation of 270 ha (approximately 9 schemes) and new development of 150 ha (approximately 5 schemes). Survey will be made on river flow and soils both with respect to schemes likely to be improved with project support and in areas with a major irrigation potential.
3.2.2. Agricultural-related Group Promotion
The project provides specifically for the development of approximate beneficiary organizations in relation to the agricultural components to be supported under the project. Two members of the five-person field contact team expected to work under the Technical assistance (TA) community development. One member of the team will be responsible for such organization in the lowland agro-ecological zone and the other member will be responsible for it in the upland/highland agro-ecological zones.
3.2.3. Technological Development
This sub-component seeks to address the problem of lack of articulated packages for improved farming systems in the project area and limited extension capability in the province. Three elements may be identified:
5.3.1. Observation trials;
5.3.2. A “Needs Assessment Survey” for constraints analysis of farm-level production;
5.3.3. Extension support.
3.2.4. Pilot Watershed Management
The watershed management is directed towards highland/upland farmers with a view to developing with them more profitably, sustainable and environmentally friendly farming systems. The programme will focus on village water supply provision as an entry activity and reforestation, introduction of pasture cover, fodder and nitrogen-fixing tree crops.
3.2.5. Veterinary Support and Livestock Development
The investment involved will allow the provincial Department of Livestock and Veterinary Services to reach most of the villages of the province with: a self-financing veterinary programme; an extension programme for improved livestock husbandry with emphasis on nutrition; and improved marketing facilities. The components will involve completion of the cool chain for supply of vaccines to district level and village level, training and equipping village veterinary workers (VVW’s), training provincial and district staff, training farmers in better animal health care and construction and supervision of sale yards.
3.2.6. Road Development
In addition to the OPEC-funded 29 km of paved road, a further 38 km of rural roads have been built or upgraded with funds from IFAD loan, and a further 16 km were under construction. In addition support is provided for the provincial Department of communication, transport, post and construction (DCTPC) in the form of office rehabilitation and furniture, equipment, transport and regional and international technical assistance in the field of road design, road construction supervision, bridge design and bridge construction supervision.
3.2.7. Health Development
The programme will have eight elements, these being: maternal and child health; birth spacing; nutrition promotion and education; communicable disease control with emphasis on malaria, acute respiratory infections and diarrhoea; water supply and sanitation; basic drug supply and training in their use; health information materials development and establishment of community health education and provision process based on beneficiary groupings and dialogue. Implementation will be through the Department of Public health supported by the office of Technical Assistance, Advisory and support unit for the project. So far IFAD fund has been used for the construction of health centre.
3.2.8. Education
To date, 15 primary schools have been built and a further 7 rehabilitated. A further 4 educational buildings are either designed or contracted. The impact of these buildings cannot be measured immediately but is clearly assisting and improving the school attendance among girls, in particular.
3.2.9. Institutional Support and Community Development
Community Development activities have been implemented by the Technical Assistance (TA) team and include adult literacy training, village-level hygiene improvement- was including the supply of latrines and the impregnation of mosquito nets- as well as the formulation of village Development Plans. In addition, provision has been made for five-person beneficiary contact team under the leadership of a long- term, internationally recruited TA community Development Expert.
4. PERSONAL PERSPECTIVE: CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE PROJECT
4.1. CED is Inclusive
During the Participatory Research Assessment for this project the needs of the farmers were divided into eight main topics, which now became the eight objectives of the project. These eight objectives could be summarized into one development objective for the project- to achieve a more secure life and improve the income generating potential for the rural population. In their attempt to identify the needs of the community, they adhered to CED principle of inclusive. This principle states that every community is made up of people with different interests and needs, having a CED plan that meets the needs of the whole community, means consulting and involving all members of the community.
However, the GTZ, IFAD and Government of Lao (GOL) practitioners went to the group of farmers with the aim of improving food security and therefore all their discussion revolved around their main objective. So this could not fully give the farmers an opportunity to wholesomely express their needs. There were other needs such as market access which was ignored.
4.2. CED is Process
If community is to do CED, the people have to get together, organize themselves and develop a plan. Often they do this by identifying their strength and assets and deciding how they can be used to help the community become stronger, socially and economically. The communities can turn to CED practitioner but the goals that are set and things that they need to be done are delivered upon and carried out by the people who live in the community.
However, in this project, provision has been made for five-person beneficiary contract team under the leadership of a long- term, internationally recruited Technical assistance (TA) community Development Expert. These five contact team members will have responsibility for beneficiary organization in relation to lowland agriculture, upland / highland agriculture, health, education and participatory development. Further provision has also been made for 17 person/months of development management/institution-building, consultancies and four person\months of community development consultancy. Therefore, there is no provision that was made for local leadership.
Further violation of “CED is a Process” principle was under education provision component. In trying to identify and establish education–cum–development in the province, the process started with discussions with villagers on their immediate practical educational needs. But implementation was being done through the Department of Education supported by the Technical Assistance (TA) and Advisory Support Unit (ASU) of the project.
4.3. CED is the Development of People
Key to the success of CED are committed leaders and participation by abroad range of community members. Sometimes in order to participate and to be effective, people need to learn how to organize themselves, how to work together and how to cooperate. They may also need training programs and education to help them achieve their goals. “People Development” helps the community take control of its future.
With reference to the project, there have been over 2400 village-level participants in training activities, including 31% of women, though the total number of trainees is probably about half as most trainees have been involved in more than one training course. Training has taken place in crop production (horticulture, mushroom cultivation, fruit tree propagation), livestock husbandry, rural credit, non- formal education, community development and health. A further 423 participants have been government staff trained in rural credit, education, community development, rural infrastructure and institution building activities. In addition, 10 study tours have taken place in Laos and in Thailand for line agency staff and farmers.
However the evaluation report points out that although the project targeted minority populations, the targeting of the women and of poorer people within communities have been neglected. Very few women have been trained, even in subjects which are of prime interest to them, such as livestock. Poorer people have not been given priority for project support within communities.
Furthermore, Community Development activities have been operated entirely through the Technical Assistance (TA) team, and implemented by their staff. As a result, local government Rural Development and Women’s Union staff have not developed the capacity to assist communities in mobilization and other community development activities, nor have community members developed a capacity for self-management.
4.4. CED is Collaborative
In order to accomplish their goals, communities often build partnerships with other communities, with educational organizations, government and regional development agencies. Partnerships like these give people access to knowledge and resources that might not be available in their own community.
As for Bokeo food security project, community mobilization and participatory Development was to be undertaken through institutional, financial and other sustainability considerations. The most important institutional point of contact at village level between the project-related staff and beneficiaries was the village Development Committee (VCD). A key aspect to establishing the participatory process was the building up of confidence between beneficiaries and the project with the understanding that adequate incentives was to be provided to enhance community participation.
The report further points out that under the current Lao PDR structure, it would be inconceivable for the project to by pass VDCs since they are the lowest level of the government. However, serious management problems which dogged project implementation with lack of cooperation and coordination between National Project Management and the TA team, led to the latter to get involved in activities that were not intended at design, namely investment funding.
4.5. CED is founded upon Sustainability
When a community is deciding what they want to do they have to ask questions about sustainability. Sustainable development is multi-faceted and includes four central components namely: economic, political, social and environmental aspects.
Bokeo Food Security Project has made a major effort to avoid any increase in staff members. With the exception of the two group promoters, there was recruitment of only Village Veterinary Workers (VVWs). But after the first two to three years they would be self-financing and not part of the government payroll. Major activities such as the animal health programme and the irrigation programme have been designed to cover their operating costs and also a substantial part of the associated investment costs. The total incremental revenue to the government generated by the project is estimated to be around USD 32,000. This incremental revenue will be sufficient to cover the incremental recurrent expenditure arising from the livestock and agriculture production components.
However the sustainability component addressed only sustainable economic development. No political and social sustainability was put into consideration.
4.6. CED is a holistic approach to development
CED includes both social and economic development. It is sensitive to the local culture and rural environment.
According to Bokeo food security report, all projects interventions have been designed to be “environmentally friendly” even down to the incorporation of fish ladder in the irrigation development component. The road programmes are expected to be indirect, rather than direct in that the programme is mainly one of rehabilitation rather than new construction. However, the work on upland/highland production system should bring substantial environmental benefits in the longer term.
The report also had it that an economic internal rate of return (EIRR) was estimated on the basis of a built-up of incremental net benefits from the irrigation and livestock models. The expected incremental benefit stream was assured to continue for 30 years and as set against the economic project costs. This analysis produces a EIRR of 15%.
However, no incremental benefits were estimated for the roads, social services or institutional support and community Development components.
4.7. CED aims for diversification
Diversification means creating economic opportunities in a variety of different, smaller sectors, rather than relying on one single industry. This allows communities to ride out the boom and bust cycles so common when a town or region has only one major industry or employer.
Bokeo Food Security Project has made provision to allow support to groups like:
4.7.1. Rice Bank Groups (RBGs) - are a credit-in-kind device for back-stopping household food security.
4.7.2. Draught Animal Scheme Groups (DASs) - are “revolving” animal schemes to help meet the need for draught animal power associated with rice production development under the project and
4.7.3. Oil Processing Groups (OPGs) and Micro-irrigation Scheme Groups (MISs) - are demonstration vehicles for technologies related to improved and expanded food production and processing.
According to the evaluation write-up, however, the agriculture component has achieved little, involving a wide dispersal into trials of new crops without attention to marketing. Minimal attention has been given to the important sector of Non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Farmers introducing new crops, particularly fruit trees have not been provided with technical support needed.
4.8. CED is innovative
The CED process requires participants to ask not only “what is?” and “why?”, but also “what if?” and “why not?” This means finding new ways to use both our human, natural and material resources to create new opportunities.
Bokeo ford security project workshop was to be held within the first three months of the project. The monitoring and evaluation (M&E) workshop would be held to introduce the principles of M&E to the project staff and the key people involved with project execution and monitoring. Furthermore, the activities would rely heavily on donor support and external technical assistance for several years to come.
In the course of holding the workshop, the beneficiaries were not involved hence violating the “CED is innovative” principle. As if that was not enough, community development activities have also been operated entirely through the Technical Assistance (TA) team and implemented by their staff.
4. 9. CED is Long term
CED doesn’t happen overnight –successful CED means that people stay involved, that they get organized and that they keep reaching for their goals.
In Bokeo food security project, there are no immediate impact of the project on local opium production but it is expected that the project will contribute in the longer term to reduction of opium production in Bokeo. The project is also expected to benefit from the continuous presence of a GTZ advising team and by the strong emphasis placed by GTZ on the need for institutional strengthening and community mobilization.
In order to ensure the non violation of “CED is long-term” principle the Mid–term Review (MTR) should be constantly made so as to ensure the participation of majority. Greatest attention should also be paid to avoid Technical Assistance (TA) to act as either parallel or substitute implementing structure.
4.10. CED is participation
CED is development of the community, by the community, for the community. “Experts” from outside don’t take charge. The community takes the lead right from the beginning.
Under Bokeo food security project, the pilot watershed management will be composed of Provincial Agricultural Service (PAS) with Technical Assistance Support. A planning and monitoring officer was recruited, as a member of the Bokeo office, to be responsible for organizing studies and data collection and planning backup for the Project Manager and National Project Director.
However, the report also pointed out that farmers would receive training in techniques of scheme construction and maintenance and other technical aspects. But prior to this, session ought to have been held to assist farmer’s groups in organizing themselves, in assigning responsibilities, and in preparing work programme for scheme construction and in the drawing up of contracts.
5. POLICY ISSUES ON FOOD SECURITY IN TANZANIA
5.1. AGRICULTURE
The structure of Tanzanian economy reveals that agriculture still dominates the economy. The sector employs about 85% of the population’s workforce and accounts for over 50% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at factor cost and 75% of foreign exchange earnings. It is the main source of food supply and raw material for industrial sector, as well as the major market for industrial goods and services.
There are two product categories namely food and cash crops. Major food crops include maize, paddy (rice), sorghum, wheat, beans, cassava, potatoes and sugar canes. Major cash (export) crops are further subdivided into traditional and non-traditional products. Traditional crops are coffee, cotton, sisal, tea, cashew nuts, tobacco, pyrethrum and cloves. Non-traditional export crops include a wide range of exportable products, but the most common are groundnuts, cowpeas, wine grapes, sunflowers, soybeans, castor seeds, cardamoms, sesame seeds, palm oil seeds, copra, cut flowers, fruits and vegetables.
5.2. FISHING
Tanzanian’s potential fish resources are promising in both marine and fresh water as well as in aquaculture. Tanzania is endowed with natural water bodies located in every side of the country’s borders. In the North is Lake Victoria, in East is Lake Tanganyika, in the South are Lake Rukwa and Nyasa. The Indian Ocean surrounds the country in East Coast strip from north to south.
The annual yield in the fresh water fishing is about 307,150 metric tones while that of the coastal fisheries is around 51,669 metric tones. This figure excludes the Exclusive Economic Zones, which has substantial fish resources that are unexploited. The contribution of the fisheries sector to the economy is providing food, employment opportunities and foreign exchange earnings.
5.3. LIVESTOCK
Tanzania is among the top three countries in Africa boasting of having the largest livestock population. Other countries are Ethiopia and Sudan.
Livestock keeping contributes an average of 7% of the country’s GDP and about 13% of the country’s agricultural produce. Its annual performance stands at an average of 2.4%.
Tanzania’s official statistics indicate an estimate of 13.7 million cattle, 11.0 million goats and 3.6 million sheep. Importantly, this livestock resource provides a substitute for food imports. Each year about 500,000 tons of milk are produced, while consumption of meat reaches 360,000 tons per annum.
6. LESSONS THAT WE CAN LEARN FROM BOKEO FOOD SECURITY PROJECT FOR POVERTY REDUCTION IN TANZANIA
6.1. Improving Transport
The construction of rural infrastructure plays a significant role in poverty alleviation. This will reduce 50% of transport costs for freight and passengers. This will also increase the demand for rural produce since it will be more accessible. In turn, the prices of rural products will increase.
6.2. Encouragement of diversification
Introduction of new crops such as mushrooms ginger will also reduce poverty. Introduction of animals such as buffalo, ducks and tigers may be of paramount importance. In addition provision has to be made to allow supports to various groups.
6.3. Reduction of Ethnic Differences
The project also acknowledged ethnic differences as a cause of poverty. Though ethnic differences are not an issue in Tanzania but knowing its effect as scholars is also important. But it must be noted that poverty is normally concentrated in minority communities, so the project must help in reaching the poor.
6.4. Provision of Credit Facilities
The absence of credit may prevent farmers from clearing new lands, and women from setting up better marketing networks for their handcrafts and other produce. The technical assistance for any project must ensure that the revolving fund must be operational.
6.5. Improve Farming Methods
Though government policy may discourage shifting cultivation, in practice but there may be few economically viable alternatives for highland farmers. However, the stabilization of agriculture should not reduce fallow cycles.
6.6. Improvement of knowledge and skills
The traditional knowledge and skills available in project area should enable the household food security and hence avoid the increasingly declining returns under traditional practices.
6.7. Improving Income
The results of modeling of the irrigation development suggest that annual incremental benefit per ha and hence the incremental benefit per household at full development can be improved through rehabilitating, upgrading and establishing new farms.
6.8. Provision of Employment
Lack of employment can be reduced through establishment of projects. Additional labour is always required in the rehabilitation of farms and establishment of irrigation schemes.
6.7. Gender Equality
Gender discrimination which culminates to high level of illiteracy and lack of education has also been addressed in the project as a major cause of poverty. The government should be urged to improve the effectiveness of the policies in favour of women.
Some provisions should be made to ensure that women should participate in and benefit from all aspects of the project. The women's associations should be an integral part of management of the project and be instrumental in ensuring the participation of women in all components.
6.8. Encourage people to accept change
Resistance to change has also been addressed as a fundamental cause of poverty. In working out the method of introduction and diffusion of the component products among the beneficiaries, a scheme should be established in order to put in place the means of substituting traditional seeds for improved one. Farmers in all irrigation schemes supported through the project should be issued with mini-kits for technology promotion consisting of seeds relating to various improved cultural practices to be introduced under project.
6.9. Discouragement of Drug Abuse
The project report addressed the issue of drug abuse, that is, opium cultivating and smoking as a cause of poverty. There may not be immediate impact of the project on local opium production but it will contribute in longer term to reduction of its production in the project area.
6.10. Provision of Water
Unreliable and insufficient water leads to low agricultural production in the lowland farming system. There is need to motivate, on the part of the farmers, to improve their traditional irrigation systems and to expand the area covered.
6.11. Introduction of Modern Technology
Lack of proven and acceptable technology has also been an obstacle in achieving a sustainable upland farming system. Technology could help farmers convert from traditional slash-and-burn system to a more permanent cropping system.
7. CONCLUSION
Poverty in Bokeo Province is a compound product of the number of inter-related and naturally reinforcing and aggravating circumstances. There is no uni-dimensional solution to the project area’s poverty. Alleviating poverty will therefore require a multi-faceted approach consisting of individually small but cumulatively significant improvements on a number of fronts. The Bokeo food security project has tried to address a number of poverty causes and insofar as poverty is concentrated in minority communities has assisted the project in reaching the poor.
With regard to development, Bokeo food security project concentrated on social and economic development. It actually failed to address both human (personal) and political development. A project of such magnitude could have taken the initiative of addressing the democratic issues, particularly in their project planning and sharing of power. Lao People’s Democratic Republic had one time been ruled by a socialist government (1975) and therefore, there could be still some elements of dictatorship in terms of resource allocation. This was therefore an opportunity for the project to address such issues.
Human (personal) development which involves the individual’s development of self- respect, self –confident, self - reliant, cooperative and tolerant of others, was not in any point addressed. There were some youth who could seek some part-time jobs after spending several hours in the project area and none could raise his/her voice to complain over low salaries. This could have been due to fear of loosing even the little they were getting from the project.
The CED principles also came in handy. Some principles were partially addressed in the project proposal but in the Mid-Term Review, were not actually given the space they deserved. For instance, the community development activities were being implemented by Technical Assistance (TA) team, who in one time were involved in activities that were not intended at design, namely investment funding. But remedy for this can be training local government staff in the relevant management, participatory and accounting skills so that their way of working and work culture is changed so that it becomes demand-driven and in participatory manner.
In a nutshell, the most important lesson one can learn from this project is that once trained, district and village-level staff should be given more responsibility and authority with respect to financial management of government and project budgets. These responsibilities and power must be accompanied with procedures of financial reporting, monitoring and supervision in order to ensure accountability and transparency.
REFERENCE
1. Stan, Burkey. People first: “A guide to self-reliant participatory rural development”, Zed Books, London, chapter 1&2 (1993).
2. Lao People's Democratic Republic: Bokeo Food Security Project proposal, evaluation and report for 2005
3. Lecture notes: - Understanding CED
–What is CED?
4. U.S. Department of State: Bureau of African Affairs (December 2007)—United Republic
of Tanzania. Also available at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2843.htm
5. Tanzania Economy available at htt://www.tptanzania.co.tz/economy_body.html
Friday, November 7, 2008
KNOWLEDGE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Definition of knowledge
3. Philosophical view of knowledge
4. Ordinary usage of knowledge
5. Religious meaning of Knowledge
6. Existence of knowledge
7. Process of obtaining Knowledge
8. Types of Knowledge
9. Forms of knowledge
10. How to minimize Knowledge Gap
11. Benefits of knowledge
12. Problems of knowledge
13. Conclusion
14. References.
1. INTRODUCTION
In this journal paper, we shall try to examine knowledge by first exploring its definition as put forward by different scholars.
We shall then embark on philosophical view on knowledge through examining the debate among the philosophers in the field of epistemology.
In this paper we shall also have a look at the ordinary usage of knowledge. This will have also a philosophical approach.
We shall give a room to the religious meaning of knowledge by considering Christian and Hindu denomination.
With the help of Patrick Reany essay on “what is knowledge” we shall explore the existence of knowledge and discuss the process of obtaining knowledge.
Types of knowledge, forms of knowledge, minimizing knowledge gap, benefits and problems of knowledge will also get a place in this paper.
Finally, we shall conclude the paper by trying to see the applicability of knowledge in developing society.
2. DEFINITION OF KNOWLEDGE
2.1.Patrick Reany, while writing on “what is knowledge?” defined knowledge as a relation between two or more concepts, where concepts are mental objects. But these concepts do not exist apart from a conceptualizer, an intelligent being. Thus human knowledge is subjective and has no absolute meaning.
2.2.According to the oxford English Dictionary, Knowledge is defined variously as:
(i) Expertise, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education, the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject,
(ii) What is known in a particular field or in total, facts and information or
(iii) Awareness or situation.
2.3.Definition of knowledge on the Web:
2.3.1. It is the act or condition of knowing something with a familiarity gained through experience or association. It means to “Perceive directly”, to “have direct cognition”, to apprehend intellectual”, to “acquire facts”.2
2.3.2. Knowledge is part of hierarchy made up of data, information and knowledge. Data are raw facts. Information is data with context and perspective. Knowledge is information with guidance for action based upon insight and experience.3
2.3.3. Knowledge is what is known. Like the related concepts truth, belief, and wisdom, there is no single definition of knowledge on which scholars agree, but rather numerous theories and continued debate about the nature of knowledge.4
2.3.4. Knowledge can be considered as distillation of information that has been collected, classified, organized, integrated, abstracted and value added…5
2.3.5. Knowledge is data and information that has been value added into a form which is suitable to support decision-making. Knowledge involves the skilled use of information within an active purposeful process of selection and interpretation.6
2.3.6. Knowledge is the mental capacity for effective performance. Knowledge as defined here can be ascertained by paper-and-pencil testing. The pure unit of measure of knowledge is accurate answers, but in many situations we judge knowledge based on both speed and accuracy.7
2.3.7. Knowledge is the awareness and understanding of facts truth, or information gained in the form of experience or leaning (a posteriori) or through introspection ( a priori). Knowledge is an appreciation of possession of inter-connected details which, i isolation, are lesser value”.8
3. PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW OF KNOWLEDGE
The definition of knowledge is a matter of on-going debate among philosophers in the field of epistemology. The classical definition, described but not ultimately endorsed by, Plato, has it that in order for there to be knowledge at least three criteria must be fulfilled; that in order to count as knowledge, a statement must be justified, true, and believed. Some claim that these conditions are not sufficient, as Gettier case examples allegedly demonstrate. There are a number of alternatives proposed, including Robert Nozick’s arguments for a requirement that knowledge “tracks the Truth” and Simon Blackburn’s additional requirement that we do not want to say that those meet any of these conditions “through a defect, flaw, or failure” have knowledge.
Richard Kirkharm suggests that the definition of knowledge requires that the believer’s evidence is such that it logically necessitates the truth of the belief.
In Contrast to this approach, Wittgenstein observed, following Moore’s paradox , that one can say “He believes it but it isn’t so,” but not “He knows it, but it isn't so”. He goes on to argue that these do not correspond to distinct mental states, but rather to distinct ways of talking about conviction. What is different here is not the mental state of the speaker, but the activity in which they are engaged.
Wittgenstein sought to bypass the difficulty of definition by looking to the way “knowledge” is used in natural languages. He saw knowledge as a case of family resemblance.
4. ORDINARY USAGE OF KNOWLEDGE
In normal conversation we use knowledge to mean: knowing that (facts and information)
Knowing how (the ability to do something). Sometimes, we use the word knowledge to mean that we have some information; we know that Mary drinks lemonade, for example. When we have this type of knowledge then we are able to express it. I cannot say that I know when the Battle of Hastings took place, if I cannot, under any circumstances, say the date! This is not true of knowing how.
5. RELIGIOUS MEANING OF KNOWLEDGE
In many expressions of Christianity, such as Catholicism and Anglicanism, knowledge is one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.
Hindu scriptures present two kinds of knowledge, Paroksha Gnyana and Aporoksha Gnyana. Paroksha Gnyana is second hand knowledge: knowledge obtained from books, hearsay e.t.c. Paroksha Gnyana is the knowledge borne of direct experience, i.e. knowledge that one discovers for oneself.
The Old Testament’s tree of knowledge of Good and Evil contained the knowledge that separated Man from God.
6. EXISTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE
Patrick Reany in his essay “what is knowledge”, convey the idea that knowledge has a different kind of existence than matter. For even if they allow that matter has an existence independent of intelligence, they can not say, the same for knowledge. The author emphasized that knowledge is very much, like sound and colour. When a tree falls, in the forest it is assumed to make a lot of sound waves, but if there is no creature nearby capable of hearing, then it makes no sound. Likewise, when light reflects off an object it produces characteristic wave lengths of light, but neither the object nor the light are coloured in themselves. Colour exists in the mind of the perceiver. Colour and sound are the brain’s method of making sense out of external signals packed up by our sensory organs. In like manner, knowledge does not exist without a knower, and there is no such a thing as “unknown” knowledge.
7. PROCESS OF OBTAINING KNOWLEDGE
Patrick Reany further considers in more detail the process of obtaining knowledge. He writes that, sometimes after conception, the normal fetus develops the rudiments of knowledge formation system (KFS). The KFS has two parts: the Semantic Analysis System (SAS) and the Program Enhancement System (PES).
The author further writes that by analogy to artificial intelligence, the SAS is both “software” and “hardware” that functions to convert raw sensory data, carried to the brain via the nervous system, and there produces meaningful concepts about the outside world ( i.e., the world “outside” of human consciousness). The PES serves to improve the SAS. He therefore defined the PES as a measure of intelligence and that intelligence is largely a function of erudition, open-mindedness, curiosity and mental stamina, which puts intelligence under the category of a development skill.
In brief, the author writes that the SAS works by intercepting sensory signals, converting these appropriate nervous impulses that are sent to the brain (the lower SAS), and there these impulses are transformed into meaningful SAS. Thus new knowledge is created by relating the new concepts to the old.
8. TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
There two main types of knowledge:
8.1 Implicit or tacit knowledge (unstructured)
This is the personal knowledge resident within the mind, behaviour and perceptions of individual members of the organization. This knowledge is embedded in individual experience and involves intangible factors, such as personal belief, perspective and the value system.
8.2 Explicit (structured) knowledge
This can be articulated into formal language (words and numbers) and normally readily transmitted and even processed by a computer to be transmitted electronically, or stored in data base. (Krough G. Ishijo, K. Nonak I (2000)).
9. FORMS OF KNOWLEDGE
There two forms of knowledge:
9.1 Situated knowledge
Situated knowledge is the knowledge specific to a particular situation. Some methods of generating knowledge, such as trial and error, or learning from experience, tend to create highly situational knowledge. Situational knowledge is often embedded in language, culture or traditions and is commonly termed as “a posteriori”, meaning afterwards. In this case, knowledge “a priori” means before.
9.2 Partial knowledge
In most realistic cases, it is not possible to have an exhaustive understanding of an information domain, so then we have to live with the fact that knowledge is always not complete, that is partial. Most real problems have to be solved by taking advantage of a partial understanding of a problem context and problem data.
10. HOW TO MINIMIZE KNOWLEDGE GAP
Knowledge gap though difficult to bridge, could be minimized through provision of education programmes tailored to empower local community with skills and techniques for sourcing for data and information about issues surrounding them.Govenment and development practitioners, on the other hand, are charged with the duties of creating conducive environment for the absorption of new knowledge through the use of user-friendly forms of communication knowledge.
11. BENEFITS OF KNOWLEDGE
· Scientific discoveries
· Industrial revolution
· Green revolution
· Scientific revolution
· Technological revolution
12. PROBLEMS OF KNOWLEDGE
· It is expensive
· It takes longer time
· Can be destructive like atomic bomb discovery
· Environmental degradation, for instance it may lead to global warming
· Increases the incidences of terrorism
· The discovery and usage of pesticides and insecticides is also harmful to the environment.
· Mining activities discovered through knowledge is also destructive to the environment.
13. CONLUSION
The success or failure of any society in terms of development depends on the knowledge they have so far acquired. This is a clear testimony that a well managed knowledge is quite essential for any given society. Knowledge management involves consciously and comprehensively gathering, organizing, sharing and analyzing knowledge in terms of resources, documents and people skills.
Knowledge generation should go hand in hand with knowledge transfer. While many would agree that one of the most universal and significant tools for the transfer of knowledge would by, the different systems of writing. But these written materials should be easily accessible and the society should develop the culture of reading otherwise such knowledge will have little impact on the society.
It is on the above argument that modern technology becomes the best means of knowledge transfer. But caution must also be taken such that people may avoid internalizing new information which may perceive to be knowledge when in essence they fill their mind with false information.
14. REFERENCE
14.1Patrick Reany (1988) “what is knowledge?” - An essay published in Arizona Journal of Natural philosophy, Vol. 2 March 1988. Pg.7- 14. Also available at: http:// ajnpx.com/html/ AJNP.html.
14.2. www.euro.-inf.eu/content/view/16/16/
14.3. www.digitalstrategy.govt.nz/temperates/page-60.aspx
14.4. wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn
14.5. www.els.salford.ac.uk/urbanmature/living-city/concepts.html
14.6. www.vic.com/tscon/pelagia/htm/bol.en.a-mgt-in-the-desert-of-the-holy-mountain.09htm
14.7. cordis.europa.eu/ist/kal/adminitrations/publications/glossary.htm
14.8 www.wikipeacha.org
1. Introduction
2. Definition of knowledge
3. Philosophical view of knowledge
4. Ordinary usage of knowledge
5. Religious meaning of Knowledge
6. Existence of knowledge
7. Process of obtaining Knowledge
8. Types of Knowledge
9. Forms of knowledge
10. How to minimize Knowledge Gap
11. Benefits of knowledge
12. Problems of knowledge
13. Conclusion
14. References.
1. INTRODUCTION
In this journal paper, we shall try to examine knowledge by first exploring its definition as put forward by different scholars.
We shall then embark on philosophical view on knowledge through examining the debate among the philosophers in the field of epistemology.
In this paper we shall also have a look at the ordinary usage of knowledge. This will have also a philosophical approach.
We shall give a room to the religious meaning of knowledge by considering Christian and Hindu denomination.
With the help of Patrick Reany essay on “what is knowledge” we shall explore the existence of knowledge and discuss the process of obtaining knowledge.
Types of knowledge, forms of knowledge, minimizing knowledge gap, benefits and problems of knowledge will also get a place in this paper.
Finally, we shall conclude the paper by trying to see the applicability of knowledge in developing society.
2. DEFINITION OF KNOWLEDGE
2.1.Patrick Reany, while writing on “what is knowledge?” defined knowledge as a relation between two or more concepts, where concepts are mental objects. But these concepts do not exist apart from a conceptualizer, an intelligent being. Thus human knowledge is subjective and has no absolute meaning.
2.2.According to the oxford English Dictionary, Knowledge is defined variously as:
(i) Expertise, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education, the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject,
(ii) What is known in a particular field or in total, facts and information or
(iii) Awareness or situation.
2.3.Definition of knowledge on the Web:
2.3.1. It is the act or condition of knowing something with a familiarity gained through experience or association. It means to “Perceive directly”, to “have direct cognition”, to apprehend intellectual”, to “acquire facts”.2
2.3.2. Knowledge is part of hierarchy made up of data, information and knowledge. Data are raw facts. Information is data with context and perspective. Knowledge is information with guidance for action based upon insight and experience.3
2.3.3. Knowledge is what is known. Like the related concepts truth, belief, and wisdom, there is no single definition of knowledge on which scholars agree, but rather numerous theories and continued debate about the nature of knowledge.4
2.3.4. Knowledge can be considered as distillation of information that has been collected, classified, organized, integrated, abstracted and value added…5
2.3.5. Knowledge is data and information that has been value added into a form which is suitable to support decision-making. Knowledge involves the skilled use of information within an active purposeful process of selection and interpretation.6
2.3.6. Knowledge is the mental capacity for effective performance. Knowledge as defined here can be ascertained by paper-and-pencil testing. The pure unit of measure of knowledge is accurate answers, but in many situations we judge knowledge based on both speed and accuracy.7
2.3.7. Knowledge is the awareness and understanding of facts truth, or information gained in the form of experience or leaning (a posteriori) or through introspection ( a priori). Knowledge is an appreciation of possession of inter-connected details which, i isolation, are lesser value”.8
3. PHILOSOPHICAL VIEW OF KNOWLEDGE
The definition of knowledge is a matter of on-going debate among philosophers in the field of epistemology. The classical definition, described but not ultimately endorsed by, Plato, has it that in order for there to be knowledge at least three criteria must be fulfilled; that in order to count as knowledge, a statement must be justified, true, and believed. Some claim that these conditions are not sufficient, as Gettier case examples allegedly demonstrate. There are a number of alternatives proposed, including Robert Nozick’s arguments for a requirement that knowledge “tracks the Truth” and Simon Blackburn’s additional requirement that we do not want to say that those meet any of these conditions “through a defect, flaw, or failure” have knowledge.
Richard Kirkharm suggests that the definition of knowledge requires that the believer’s evidence is such that it logically necessitates the truth of the belief.
In Contrast to this approach, Wittgenstein observed, following Moore’s paradox , that one can say “He believes it but it isn’t so,” but not “He knows it, but it isn't so”. He goes on to argue that these do not correspond to distinct mental states, but rather to distinct ways of talking about conviction. What is different here is not the mental state of the speaker, but the activity in which they are engaged.
Wittgenstein sought to bypass the difficulty of definition by looking to the way “knowledge” is used in natural languages. He saw knowledge as a case of family resemblance.
4. ORDINARY USAGE OF KNOWLEDGE
In normal conversation we use knowledge to mean: knowing that (facts and information)
Knowing how (the ability to do something). Sometimes, we use the word knowledge to mean that we have some information; we know that Mary drinks lemonade, for example. When we have this type of knowledge then we are able to express it. I cannot say that I know when the Battle of Hastings took place, if I cannot, under any circumstances, say the date! This is not true of knowing how.
5. RELIGIOUS MEANING OF KNOWLEDGE
In many expressions of Christianity, such as Catholicism and Anglicanism, knowledge is one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.
Hindu scriptures present two kinds of knowledge, Paroksha Gnyana and Aporoksha Gnyana. Paroksha Gnyana is second hand knowledge: knowledge obtained from books, hearsay e.t.c. Paroksha Gnyana is the knowledge borne of direct experience, i.e. knowledge that one discovers for oneself.
The Old Testament’s tree of knowledge of Good and Evil contained the knowledge that separated Man from God.
6. EXISTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE
Patrick Reany in his essay “what is knowledge”, convey the idea that knowledge has a different kind of existence than matter. For even if they allow that matter has an existence independent of intelligence, they can not say, the same for knowledge. The author emphasized that knowledge is very much, like sound and colour. When a tree falls, in the forest it is assumed to make a lot of sound waves, but if there is no creature nearby capable of hearing, then it makes no sound. Likewise, when light reflects off an object it produces characteristic wave lengths of light, but neither the object nor the light are coloured in themselves. Colour exists in the mind of the perceiver. Colour and sound are the brain’s method of making sense out of external signals packed up by our sensory organs. In like manner, knowledge does not exist without a knower, and there is no such a thing as “unknown” knowledge.
7. PROCESS OF OBTAINING KNOWLEDGE
Patrick Reany further considers in more detail the process of obtaining knowledge. He writes that, sometimes after conception, the normal fetus develops the rudiments of knowledge formation system (KFS). The KFS has two parts: the Semantic Analysis System (SAS) and the Program Enhancement System (PES).
The author further writes that by analogy to artificial intelligence, the SAS is both “software” and “hardware” that functions to convert raw sensory data, carried to the brain via the nervous system, and there produces meaningful concepts about the outside world ( i.e., the world “outside” of human consciousness). The PES serves to improve the SAS. He therefore defined the PES as a measure of intelligence and that intelligence is largely a function of erudition, open-mindedness, curiosity and mental stamina, which puts intelligence under the category of a development skill.
In brief, the author writes that the SAS works by intercepting sensory signals, converting these appropriate nervous impulses that are sent to the brain (the lower SAS), and there these impulses are transformed into meaningful SAS. Thus new knowledge is created by relating the new concepts to the old.
8. TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
There two main types of knowledge:
8.1 Implicit or tacit knowledge (unstructured)
This is the personal knowledge resident within the mind, behaviour and perceptions of individual members of the organization. This knowledge is embedded in individual experience and involves intangible factors, such as personal belief, perspective and the value system.
8.2 Explicit (structured) knowledge
This can be articulated into formal language (words and numbers) and normally readily transmitted and even processed by a computer to be transmitted electronically, or stored in data base. (Krough G. Ishijo, K. Nonak I (2000)).
9. FORMS OF KNOWLEDGE
There two forms of knowledge:
9.1 Situated knowledge
Situated knowledge is the knowledge specific to a particular situation. Some methods of generating knowledge, such as trial and error, or learning from experience, tend to create highly situational knowledge. Situational knowledge is often embedded in language, culture or traditions and is commonly termed as “a posteriori”, meaning afterwards. In this case, knowledge “a priori” means before.
9.2 Partial knowledge
In most realistic cases, it is not possible to have an exhaustive understanding of an information domain, so then we have to live with the fact that knowledge is always not complete, that is partial. Most real problems have to be solved by taking advantage of a partial understanding of a problem context and problem data.
10. HOW TO MINIMIZE KNOWLEDGE GAP
Knowledge gap though difficult to bridge, could be minimized through provision of education programmes tailored to empower local community with skills and techniques for sourcing for data and information about issues surrounding them.Govenment and development practitioners, on the other hand, are charged with the duties of creating conducive environment for the absorption of new knowledge through the use of user-friendly forms of communication knowledge.
11. BENEFITS OF KNOWLEDGE
· Scientific discoveries
· Industrial revolution
· Green revolution
· Scientific revolution
· Technological revolution
12. PROBLEMS OF KNOWLEDGE
· It is expensive
· It takes longer time
· Can be destructive like atomic bomb discovery
· Environmental degradation, for instance it may lead to global warming
· Increases the incidences of terrorism
· The discovery and usage of pesticides and insecticides is also harmful to the environment.
· Mining activities discovered through knowledge is also destructive to the environment.
13. CONLUSION
The success or failure of any society in terms of development depends on the knowledge they have so far acquired. This is a clear testimony that a well managed knowledge is quite essential for any given society. Knowledge management involves consciously and comprehensively gathering, organizing, sharing and analyzing knowledge in terms of resources, documents and people skills.
Knowledge generation should go hand in hand with knowledge transfer. While many would agree that one of the most universal and significant tools for the transfer of knowledge would by, the different systems of writing. But these written materials should be easily accessible and the society should develop the culture of reading otherwise such knowledge will have little impact on the society.
It is on the above argument that modern technology becomes the best means of knowledge transfer. But caution must also be taken such that people may avoid internalizing new information which may perceive to be knowledge when in essence they fill their mind with false information.
14. REFERENCE
14.1Patrick Reany (1988) “what is knowledge?” - An essay published in Arizona Journal of Natural philosophy, Vol. 2 March 1988. Pg.7- 14. Also available at: http:// ajnpx.com/html/ AJNP.html.
14.2. www.euro.-inf.eu/content/view/16/16/
14.3. www.digitalstrategy.govt.nz/temperates/page-60.aspx
14.4. wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn
14.5. www.els.salford.ac.uk/urbanmature/living-city/concepts.html
14.6. www.vic.com/tscon/pelagia/htm/bol.en.a-mgt-in-the-desert-of-the-holy-mountain.09htm
14.7. cordis.europa.eu/ist/kal/adminitrations/publications/glossary.htm
14.8 www.wikipeacha.org
COMMUNITY ORGANIZING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Definition and scope of community organizing
2.1 Organization
2.2 Community Organizing
Role of Organizing
Role of Community Organizers (Groups)
Principles of Community Organizing
5.1. A participative Culture
5.2. Inclusiveness
5.3 Breadth of Mission and Vision
5.4. Critical perspective
6. Significance of Community Organizing
7. Values of Community Organizing
8. Conclusion
9. Reference
1. INTRODUCTION
This journal paper will attempt to examine Community organizing as strategy for community development. To achieve this, the paper will be divided into various subheadings.
The first subheadings will examine the definition and scope of community organizing. Under this sub-heading, the paper will define organization and community organizing. The targeted groups of people and the effectiveness of tool will be taken into consideration.
The second sub-heading will try to examine the role of organizing as an instrument for transforming social, environmental, economic, individuals and communities such that they may be acceptable to the eyes of the public.
The seventh sub heading will be the significance of community organizing. This will be in accordance with the Neighborhood Finders Groups (NFG), working in America. Will shall therefore examine how the NFG consider CO as important strategy for change.
Finally, we shall draw conclusion from the foregoing discussion on community organizing. Under this sub heading, the paper will attempt to examine the relevance of CO in developing countries.
2. DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZING
2.1 Organizing
Organization means hope for people. It means making their institutions relevant. But most of all, organization means power. It means being able to do something about things they have been frustrated about all their lives.4 (Ernesto Cortes, Industrial Area Foundation)
2.2 Community organization
Community Organization is that process by which the people organize themselves to “take Change” of their situation and thus develop a sense of being a community together. It is a particularly effective tool for the poor and powerless as they determine for themselves the actions they will take to deal with the essential forces that are destroying their community and consequently causing them to be powerless. 3 (Reverend Robert Linthicum, World Vision International)
Community organizing explicitly seeks to build the power base of the poor so they can affect and change the public policies and private market forces that create and sustain social and economic inequality. (Henry Allen, Hyams Foundation)
Community organizing (CO) is one of the few strategies working to build grassroots leaderships, community initiative and constituent influence in neighborhoods and communities that are often forgotten or ignored by those in power.
3. ROLE OF ORGANIZATING
Organizing does two central things to seek to rectify the problem of power imbalance (1) it builds a permanent base of people power so that dominant financial and institutional power can be challenged and held accountable to values of greater social, environmental
and economic justice.
(2) it transforms individuals and communities, making them mutually respectful co-
creators of public life rather than passive objects of decisions made by others” (Mike Miller,
Organize Training center)
4. THE ROLE OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZERS (GROUPS)
Community organizers identity and attract, the people to be involved in the organizations and develop the leadership forum and relationships among the people that make the organizations effective.
Typically, the actions taken by CO Groups are preceded by careful data gathering, research and participatory strategic planning. The actions are often in the form of negotiations- with targeted institutions holding power – around issues determined by and important to the organizations.
The CO groups seeks policy, and other significant changes determined by and responsive to the people (that is, their “constituencies”). Where good-faith negotiations fail, these constituencies – led organizations seek to pressure the decision-maker through a variety of means –so that the decision will return to the negotiations and move to desired outcomes.
The authors, Seth Borgos and Scott Douglas, stressed that “the fundamental source of cohesion of every strong CO group is the conviction that it offers its members a unique vehicle for exercising and developing their capacities as citizens” The author also noted that the most common usage of the term CO “refers to organizations that are democratic in governance, open and accessible to community members, and concerned with the general health of the community rather than a specific interest or service function.”
5. PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZING
According to Borgos and Douglas, the key principles of contemporary CO are:
5.1 A participative culture
CO organizations view participation as end in itself. Under the rubric of leadership development, they devote considerable time and resources to enlarging the skills, knowledge and responsibilities of their members. “Never do for others what they can do for themselves” is known as the iron rule of organization.
5.2 Inclusiveness
CO groups are generally committed to developing membership and leadership from abroad spectrum of the community, with many expressly dedicated to fostering participation among groups that have been “absent from the table” including communities of colour, low income constituencies, immigrants, sexual minorities and youth. Working with marginalized groups demands a high level of skill, a frank acknowledgement of power disparities, and a major investment of time and effort.
5.3 Breadth of mission and vision
In principle, every issue that affects the welfare of the community is within CO`s purview, where other civic institutions tend to get stuck on certain functions while losing sight of the community’s larger problems. In practice, strong (but by no means all) CO organizations have proven adept at integrating adverse set of issues and linking them to a larger vision of the common good. This is a holistic function that has been largely abandoned by political parties, churches, schools and other civic institutions.
5.4 Critical Perspectives
CO organizations seek o change policies and institutions that are not working. In many communities, they are the only force promoting institutional accountability and responsiveness. Because community organizations take critical positions, they can be viewed as partisan or even polarizing in some contexts, and an obstacle to social collaboration. However, research suggests that effective governance depends on “civicness” – not consensus. A critical stance may generate conflict, but it can also stimulate participation and sharpen political discourse in ways that lead to deeper forms of social collaboration.
SIGNIFICANCE OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZING
The Neighborhood Finders Group (NFG), working in America, considers CO as an important strategy for change.
Naturally, CO groups have:
· Leveraged billions of dollars in public and private sector investment;
· Expanded and improved city services;
· Prevented industrial plant closings;
· Secured fair-share hiring agreements from public and private sector employees;
· Cleared up toxic waste dumps in low income communities;
· Organized public and private housing tenants;
· Improved the climate, operation and performance of neighborhood schools; and
· Build or rehabilitated thousands of affordable housing units.
· CO has also nourished and supported local leadership by teaching people how to convene meetings, conduct research, analyze public policy positions, negotiate with public and private officials, register people for vote, develop a common vision for struggling or distressed communities, and implement a work plan to address and resolve important issues or problems.
· CO`s growth, increased sophistication and impact have momentum. CO groups are now paying for greater attention to educating opinion-makers and to pursuing more thoughtful communication strategies. An increasing number of foundations with more traditional service-oriented grant making programs are now exploring and investing in CO. This underscores CO`s increased visibility and importance, and helps to spread the knowledge of CO`s value previously uninformed sectors of society, including grant makers.
VALUES OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZING
CO is a value based process by which people most often low and moderate income people previously absent from decision-making tables are brought together in organizations to jointly act in the interest of their “communities” and the common good.
The term “value-based” refers to values that form the basis of CO theory and practice. For most community organizers and CO groups, the values includes: community, solidarity, equality, freedom, justice, the dignity of individual, respect for differences, civility, and political democracy.
8. CONCLUSION
The community organizing movement is a largely American phenomenon. It is therefore based deeply in their democratic values. On the basis of this, the CO groups change laws and policies and generate billions of dollars for low-income communities and their residents. The democratic values exercised in America may not necessary be equivalent to one of the developing countries, such as Tanzania. It will therefore require a CO practitioner to carefully incorporate the democratic values of the third World Countries when working among the poor in developing countries.
Besides that, the disadvantaged or marginalized people in America are not similar to poor people in the developing countries. As far as income is concerned, the poor people in America may be very rich in relation to poor people in most of developing countries. With regards to this, the CO practitioners in developing countries also need a proper knowledge in order to adopt the strategy.
9. REFERENCE
9.1. Seth Borgos and Scott Douglas “community organizing and civic renewal: A view from the south”, social policy, winter, 1996.
9.2. Mike Miller, organize training center, as quoted in Sally Covington and Larry Parachini, Foundations in the New Era, Washington DC: The National Committee for Responsive Philanthropy, 1995.
9.3. Robert C. Linthicum, Empowering the poor: Community organizing among the City’s “rag, tag and bob tail,” Monrovia, CA: MARC, 1991, Pg.31.
9.4. Ernesto Cortes, Industrial Areas Foundation, as quoted in: Harry C. Boyte, The Backyard Revolution: Understanding the New Citizen movement, Philadelphia, Temple University Press, 1980, Pg 44.
9.5. Neighborhood Finders Group, Plan 2000, Three-year Strategic Plan, 1997.
9.6. File: // D: \UNDP\ Introduction COMMUNITY ORGANIZING – files\ Introduction Community…
Introduction
Definition and scope of community organizing
2.1 Organization
2.2 Community Organizing
Role of Organizing
Role of Community Organizers (Groups)
Principles of Community Organizing
5.1. A participative Culture
5.2. Inclusiveness
5.3 Breadth of Mission and Vision
5.4. Critical perspective
6. Significance of Community Organizing
7. Values of Community Organizing
8. Conclusion
9. Reference
1. INTRODUCTION
This journal paper will attempt to examine Community organizing as strategy for community development. To achieve this, the paper will be divided into various subheadings.
The first subheadings will examine the definition and scope of community organizing. Under this sub-heading, the paper will define organization and community organizing. The targeted groups of people and the effectiveness of tool will be taken into consideration.
The second sub-heading will try to examine the role of organizing as an instrument for transforming social, environmental, economic, individuals and communities such that they may be acceptable to the eyes of the public.
The seventh sub heading will be the significance of community organizing. This will be in accordance with the Neighborhood Finders Groups (NFG), working in America. Will shall therefore examine how the NFG consider CO as important strategy for change.
Finally, we shall draw conclusion from the foregoing discussion on community organizing. Under this sub heading, the paper will attempt to examine the relevance of CO in developing countries.
2. DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZING
2.1 Organizing
Organization means hope for people. It means making their institutions relevant. But most of all, organization means power. It means being able to do something about things they have been frustrated about all their lives.4 (Ernesto Cortes, Industrial Area Foundation)
2.2 Community organization
Community Organization is that process by which the people organize themselves to “take Change” of their situation and thus develop a sense of being a community together. It is a particularly effective tool for the poor and powerless as they determine for themselves the actions they will take to deal with the essential forces that are destroying their community and consequently causing them to be powerless. 3 (Reverend Robert Linthicum, World Vision International)
Community organizing explicitly seeks to build the power base of the poor so they can affect and change the public policies and private market forces that create and sustain social and economic inequality. (Henry Allen, Hyams Foundation)
Community organizing (CO) is one of the few strategies working to build grassroots leaderships, community initiative and constituent influence in neighborhoods and communities that are often forgotten or ignored by those in power.
3. ROLE OF ORGANIZATING
Organizing does two central things to seek to rectify the problem of power imbalance (1) it builds a permanent base of people power so that dominant financial and institutional power can be challenged and held accountable to values of greater social, environmental
and economic justice.
(2) it transforms individuals and communities, making them mutually respectful co-
creators of public life rather than passive objects of decisions made by others” (Mike Miller,
Organize Training center)
4. THE ROLE OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZERS (GROUPS)
Community organizers identity and attract, the people to be involved in the organizations and develop the leadership forum and relationships among the people that make the organizations effective.
Typically, the actions taken by CO Groups are preceded by careful data gathering, research and participatory strategic planning. The actions are often in the form of negotiations- with targeted institutions holding power – around issues determined by and important to the organizations.
The CO groups seeks policy, and other significant changes determined by and responsive to the people (that is, their “constituencies”). Where good-faith negotiations fail, these constituencies – led organizations seek to pressure the decision-maker through a variety of means –so that the decision will return to the negotiations and move to desired outcomes.
The authors, Seth Borgos and Scott Douglas, stressed that “the fundamental source of cohesion of every strong CO group is the conviction that it offers its members a unique vehicle for exercising and developing their capacities as citizens” The author also noted that the most common usage of the term CO “refers to organizations that are democratic in governance, open and accessible to community members, and concerned with the general health of the community rather than a specific interest or service function.”
5. PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZING
According to Borgos and Douglas, the key principles of contemporary CO are:
5.1 A participative culture
CO organizations view participation as end in itself. Under the rubric of leadership development, they devote considerable time and resources to enlarging the skills, knowledge and responsibilities of their members. “Never do for others what they can do for themselves” is known as the iron rule of organization.
5.2 Inclusiveness
CO groups are generally committed to developing membership and leadership from abroad spectrum of the community, with many expressly dedicated to fostering participation among groups that have been “absent from the table” including communities of colour, low income constituencies, immigrants, sexual minorities and youth. Working with marginalized groups demands a high level of skill, a frank acknowledgement of power disparities, and a major investment of time and effort.
5.3 Breadth of mission and vision
In principle, every issue that affects the welfare of the community is within CO`s purview, where other civic institutions tend to get stuck on certain functions while losing sight of the community’s larger problems. In practice, strong (but by no means all) CO organizations have proven adept at integrating adverse set of issues and linking them to a larger vision of the common good. This is a holistic function that has been largely abandoned by political parties, churches, schools and other civic institutions.
5.4 Critical Perspectives
CO organizations seek o change policies and institutions that are not working. In many communities, they are the only force promoting institutional accountability and responsiveness. Because community organizations take critical positions, they can be viewed as partisan or even polarizing in some contexts, and an obstacle to social collaboration. However, research suggests that effective governance depends on “civicness” – not consensus. A critical stance may generate conflict, but it can also stimulate participation and sharpen political discourse in ways that lead to deeper forms of social collaboration.
SIGNIFICANCE OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZING
The Neighborhood Finders Group (NFG), working in America, considers CO as an important strategy for change.
Naturally, CO groups have:
· Leveraged billions of dollars in public and private sector investment;
· Expanded and improved city services;
· Prevented industrial plant closings;
· Secured fair-share hiring agreements from public and private sector employees;
· Cleared up toxic waste dumps in low income communities;
· Organized public and private housing tenants;
· Improved the climate, operation and performance of neighborhood schools; and
· Build or rehabilitated thousands of affordable housing units.
· CO has also nourished and supported local leadership by teaching people how to convene meetings, conduct research, analyze public policy positions, negotiate with public and private officials, register people for vote, develop a common vision for struggling or distressed communities, and implement a work plan to address and resolve important issues or problems.
· CO`s growth, increased sophistication and impact have momentum. CO groups are now paying for greater attention to educating opinion-makers and to pursuing more thoughtful communication strategies. An increasing number of foundations with more traditional service-oriented grant making programs are now exploring and investing in CO. This underscores CO`s increased visibility and importance, and helps to spread the knowledge of CO`s value previously uninformed sectors of society, including grant makers.
VALUES OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZING
CO is a value based process by which people most often low and moderate income people previously absent from decision-making tables are brought together in organizations to jointly act in the interest of their “communities” and the common good.
The term “value-based” refers to values that form the basis of CO theory and practice. For most community organizers and CO groups, the values includes: community, solidarity, equality, freedom, justice, the dignity of individual, respect for differences, civility, and political democracy.
8. CONCLUSION
The community organizing movement is a largely American phenomenon. It is therefore based deeply in their democratic values. On the basis of this, the CO groups change laws and policies and generate billions of dollars for low-income communities and their residents. The democratic values exercised in America may not necessary be equivalent to one of the developing countries, such as Tanzania. It will therefore require a CO practitioner to carefully incorporate the democratic values of the third World Countries when working among the poor in developing countries.
Besides that, the disadvantaged or marginalized people in America are not similar to poor people in the developing countries. As far as income is concerned, the poor people in America may be very rich in relation to poor people in most of developing countries. With regards to this, the CO practitioners in developing countries also need a proper knowledge in order to adopt the strategy.
9. REFERENCE
9.1. Seth Borgos and Scott Douglas “community organizing and civic renewal: A view from the south”, social policy, winter, 1996.
9.2. Mike Miller, organize training center, as quoted in Sally Covington and Larry Parachini, Foundations in the New Era, Washington DC: The National Committee for Responsive Philanthropy, 1995.
9.3. Robert C. Linthicum, Empowering the poor: Community organizing among the City’s “rag, tag and bob tail,” Monrovia, CA: MARC, 1991, Pg.31.
9.4. Ernesto Cortes, Industrial Areas Foundation, as quoted in: Harry C. Boyte, The Backyard Revolution: Understanding the New Citizen movement, Philadelphia, Temple University Press, 1980, Pg 44.
9.5. Neighborhood Finders Group, Plan 2000, Three-year Strategic Plan, 1997.
9.6. File: // D: \UNDP\ Introduction COMMUNITY ORGANIZING – files\ Introduction Community…
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)
